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Organic waste management is challenging in low-middle income countries. Environmental impacts and high management costs affect the sustainable development of cities, an issue that is exacerbated by the lack of social involvement. The research conducted in Iran aims to assess the benefits of organic waste home composting in Shiraz to improve solid waste management (SWM) sustainability. The introduction of a pilot project to assess home composting systems was described, together with an economic, social and environmental analysis. The current SWM system (S0) has been compared with the new strategy proposed (S1), where home composting is considered to be introduced to collect about 10% of the municipal solid waste generated in a 10-year horizon. An economic balance related to the capital costs and operational costs of both systems was introduced, in parallel with a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the SWM system, and a questionnaire survey of the local population. Results showed that S1 leads to around 5% economic savings for the municipality due to the avoidance of organic waste transportation and disposal. Environmental benefits include a lowering of CO2-Eq emissions of about 19,076 tonnes year−1. In addition, about 28% of the interviewed (n = 319) agreed to employ the home composting system at home (CI 5.5%, 95% of confidence level) supporting the theory that about 10% of the organic waste can be segregated and home-composted. The research underlines that home composting can contribute to improve the sustainability of SWM systems in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the study was to whether the microwave vacuum drying system, which makes positive contributions to the quality characteristics in food drying, would have positive effects on the existing quality criteria by using explosion puffing drying after microwave vacuum drying and microwave vacuum drying after hot air drying. In this study, apple slices were dried in four single drying; air drying (AD) (70 °C, 2 m/s), microwave vacuum drying (MWVD) (1.5, 3 and 4.5 W/g) and six combined drying; the first 3 of 6 combined drying; AD (70 °C, 2 m/s) + MWVD (1.5, 3 and 4.5 W/g), the second 3 of 6 combined drying; MWVD (1.5, 3 and 4.5 W/g) + Explosion puffing drying (EPD) (0.6 MPa, 70 °C). It was determined that the apparent volumes of MWVD samples (1.5, 3 and 4.5 W/g) were 9, 17, and 51% higher than AD samples, respectively. With the MWVD and EPD processes applied after AD, a product structure with expanded and increased porosity was obtained, which increased the rehydration rate of the dried product. This was confirmed by the image analysis method, and the geometric structure, dimensions, and depth map of the porous material were examined using the MATLAB program for SEM images of dried products. We believe that a verification approach that is not available in the literature will contribute to the literature by providing an innovative approach for validation purposes in the evaluation of SEM images in drying studies. The total phenolic content (TPC), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2.2’ azinobis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) contents were higher in the MWVD samples than in the MWVD + EPD samples. TPC and antioxidant capacity were higher 2–1.87 times and 1.98–1.74 times for 4.5 W/g MWVD and 4.5 W/g MWVD + EPD dried apple as compared to air-dried apple slice. With the increase in power density per product in MWVD, the porosity, rehydration, total phenolic, DPPH and ABTS values of the product increased The MWVD and EPD methods prevent shrinkage and volume loss of the dried products, and a low bulk density product was obtained. Therefore, we can conclude that both puff drying and microwave -vacuum drying are successful methods for the production of dried apple slices.

Camel meat is a source of high-quality meat with high nutritional value for human beings. In this study, the process of airdried camel meat was optimized by single factors such as the air-drying time, salt addition and curing time, and response surface methodology. Based on the determination of moisture content, weight loss rate and chromatic value, the pH value, lipolytic enzymes activity, lipoxygenase activity, peroxide value, and the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value indicated the lipolysis and lipid oxidation during the processing of air-dried camel meat. According to the results, the optimal condition of air-dried camel meat process was air-drying time of 8 days, salt addition of 2.6%, and curing time of 3 days. Under these conditions, the hardness and elasticity of air-dried camel meat were moderate. With the extension of air-drying time, the moisture content of air-dried camel meat decreased, the weight loss rate increased, and the chromatic value decreased. The activity of neutral lipase increased significantly in the curing stage (P < 0.05), and the activity of acid lipase and phospholipase increased significantly in the later periods of air drying (P < 0.05). The pH value decreased first and then increased in the air-drying stage. Lipoxygenase activity, peroxide value, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value increased during processing. This study showed that the lipids were hydrolyzed and oxidized to some extent during the processing of air-dried camel meat, which contributed to form the flavor quality of air-dried camel meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of New Building Materials / Xinxing Jianzhu Cailiao is the property of New Building Materials Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Drying herbs is a crucial method for stabilizing and preserving their essential properties and bioactive compounds. Although freeze drying is the preferred method for most herbs, it is expensive due to high energy consumption and operating costs. Biflavonoids are dimeric flavonoids that have recently been recognized as potential molecules possessing biological activities, such as antiviral and antimicrobial activity, and as effective molecules for the treatment of neurodegenerative and metabolic diseases and for cancer therapies. In this study, we performed a comparative analysis of freeze drying, air drying and oven drying to evaluate their effects on biflavonoid content in yellow ginkgo leaves (Ginkgo biloba L.). After drying, we performed spectrophotometric analysis to determine the browning index, pigments, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity, while HPLC-DAD was used for the identification and quantification of individual biflavones (amentoflavone, bilobetin, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin and sciadopitysin). The most abundant biflavonoids were isoginkgetin and bilobetin, the amounts of which exceeded 1000 µg/g dw in all leaf samples. They were followed by ginkgetin and sciadopitysin, the amounts of which were about 30% lower. The drying method did not influence biflavone content or the total carotenoids, total polyphenols and total flavonoids. Consequently, our study suggests that all three methods may be used for the preparation of yellow ginkgo leaves as a source of biflavones and other bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Almond bagasse resulting after the production of almond-based drinks represents a promising by-product with potential for use as a functional ingredient. To facilitate its utilization, the stability of this material can be achieved through dehydration processes such as hot air drying or freeze-drying. Nevertheless, owing to its high fat content, almond bagasse is prone to lipid oxidation, which could result in undesirable quality. Therefore, the objective of this work was to assess the impact of dehydration (by hot air drying at 60 and 70 °C and by freeze-drying) and storage (at room temperature and in accelerated conditions) on the functional quality and stability of almond bagasse powder. Throughout the dehydration process, it was observed that antioxidant compounds were preserved without significant differences among dehydration treatments. These compounds increased over the storage period, especially in the samples treated with hot air. Regarding antiradical capacity, the hot-air-dried samples showed higher values than the freeze-dried ones, although in all cases, it increased during storage. For total phenols in samples air-dried at 70 °C, increases of more than 50% were observed. The acidity and peroxide index were increased in the extended storage period, although they did not reach critical values. Samples stored for 180 days showed peroxide values ranging from 10 to 12.8 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples stored at room temperature and from 14.7 to 23 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples subjected to accelerated storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need for cost-efficient, simple and radiation free technologies in clinical diagnostics has orientated the scientific community in the investigation of techniques such as vibrational spectroscopy. Vibrational spectroscopy due to its simplicity both in sample preparation as well as friendly use combined with the technological evolution in data processing and storage could play a promising role in diagnostics even for multifactorial diseases such as osteoarthritis via biofluid analysis. However, despite the related works aiming in synovial fluid there is not a common line in terms of sample preparation. Hence, it is important to establish an effective sample pretreatment protocol to avoid subjectivity and provide the possibility of reliable comparisons among results. In this work, freeze drying preprocessing technique was compared with natural drying in terms of diagnostic performance in 35 knee synovial fluids aspirated from primary osteoarthritic patients with 2 and 4 Kellgren-Lawrence scores. Principal component analysis combined with mean spectra analysis was implemented for this diagnostic purpose. Results have shown that natural drying technique tends to generate more distinct enhanced interclass variations among synovial dried samples compared to freeze drying, despite the latest potential in other biological samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fresh and dried Cordyceps sinensis are widely used by the public for medicinal and health purposes. However, the differences between them have not been examined. In this study, fresh wild and artificial C. sinensis (WFC and AFC) were dried to obtain dried wild and artificial C. sinensis (WDC and ADC). Non-targeted GC-MS was used to analyze the metabolic profile characteristics of the four groups of samples. The results showed that air drying significantly altered the composition and content of C. sinensis, mainly in the form of higher abundance of organic acids and derivatives and lower abundance of lipids and lipid-like molecules in fresh C. sinensis. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and quantitative analyses showed that air drying increased the abundance of Valine, Zinniol, Urocanate, Vulpinic acid, and Uridine 5'-diphosphate, and decreased Xanthotoxol, Vitexin-4-o-glucoside, Val-trp, and Wogonin. These differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were also shown to be potential biomarkers for C. sinensis. KEGG enrichment analysis identified lysine biosynthesis as the most significantly enriched pathway. Annotation of these DAMs to lysine biosynthesis revealed that citrate cycle and pyruvate metabolism entered lysine biosynthesis via 2-oxohlutarate and Homocitrate, respectively, resulting in significant enrichment of L-saccharopine and L-lysine content was significantly higher. Alanine, aspartate, and Glutamate metabolism synthesized more L-aspartate to promote L-lysine synthesis. Thus, high levels of L-lysine result in lysine degradation and pymolysine, which are the most active metabolic pathways during the drying of fresh C. sinensis and indirectly lead to differences in metabolic profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Food & Machinery is the property of Food & Machinery Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The main goal of this work is to study an innovative method to valorize peach peel which is the major by-product of the peach industry. Peach peel has the potential to be a food ingredient of considerate nutritional value after its drying. Although drying is one of the oldest used fruit preservation processes, there are no studies on peach peel drying. More specifically, this work focuses on the combination of ultrasounds and immersion in ethanol as a pretreatment to drying to improve the process by reducing energy consumption and ensuring a safe and high-quality product. Peach peels samples were pretreated (a) in aqueous ethanol 75% v/v for 10, 20, and 30 min and (b) in aqueous ethanol 75% v/v for 10, 20, and 30 min with simultaneous ultrasounds treatment at amplitudes of 50, 60, and 70%, and subsequently dried in a convection hot air dryer at 70°C. Mass transfer of water was described by the analytical and the simplified solution of the diffusion approach. The effect of the examined factors on drying rate and moisture diffusion coefficient was examined and the optimum conditions were determined. In addition, various properties of the dried peels (total phenolics content, total carotenoid content, ascorbic acid content, antioxidant activity, rehydration ratio, and color) were examined. The remarkable reduction obtained in the drying time (37.5%) as well as the improved dried peel characteristics achieved with the use of a suitable pretreatment for convective drying will serve a great purpose in the peach industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, vacuum drying (VD), microwave drying (MW) and freeze-drying (FD) alternatives to air drying (AD) were applied to apple samples before explosion puffing drying (EPD). The volumes of AD+EPD samples were determined 20% higher than the volume of AD samples. The porosity value and the average pore radius value were obtained by examining the SEM images with the MATLAB program. Porosity values were found between 0.41-0.82 for all drying processes applied. The lowest porosity was found at 180MW, and the highest porosity was found in the FD samples. It is seen that the porosity ratio increases as the microwave power per product increases. Rehydration rates of 180, 360 and 600MW samples were determined as 308, 320 and 336%, respectively. It contributed to the increase in rehydration due to the increase in the porosity of the product with the increase in power density per product in MW drying. There was an increase in the amount of TPC with the combined use of the EPD process. The highest ABTS and DPPH were determined in the FD, FD+EPD and 600MW+EPD samples, respectively. The predrying methods and parameters described in the study significantly affected the quality of apples in terms of their physical and chemical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aimed to improve the flavor of Cantonese sausage and innovate the product. Methods: The volatile flavor compounds in the Cantonese sausages containing sauce-flavor Baijiu air-dried for 0 day, 2 days and 4 days were detected by GC-MS, and the changes of volatile flavor compounds were analyzed by multivariate statistics. Results: A total of 39 volatile flavor compounds were detected through GC-MS technology, including 18 hydrocarbons, 12 esters, 2 aldehydes, 2 ethers, 1 alcohol, 1 acid, 1 ketone and 2 other compounds. Esters, aldehydes, alcohols and hydrocarbons significantly increased during air-drying, while ketones and ethers showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing during air-drying. The acids did not change significantly during air-drying. Five different flavor substances were identified through VIP values, which could be served as potential biomarkers for distinguishing sausages with different air-drying times. Six key flavor components were screened through OAV. Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate, ethyl hexanoate, and ethyl butyrate were common key flavor components in three groups of sausages, and their content significantly increased during air-drying. Conclusion: Adding sauce-flavor Baijiu can increase the types and contents of volatile flavor compounds in Cantonese sausage and promote the formation of new flavor compounds.

Copyright of Eurasian Physical Technical Journal is the property of E.A. Buketov Karaganda University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

3D cheap, lightweight and robust cellulosic parts can be obtained via extrusion of a cellulosic aqueous paste followed by air-drying. During the air-drying step, an anisotropic shrinkage occurs. The objective of this study is to characterize the macro and mesoscale phenomena occurring during the drying process. We used sub-minute laboratory X-ray microtomography during air-drying tests combined with advanced image analysis including Digital Volume Correlation to reveal the mechanisms that took place at the sample and at the filament scales. This allowed the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the structural and kinematical changes occurring during the air-drying. The macroscopic anisotropic shrinkage of the structure is associated with a decrease of the solid fraction of the cube and a decrease of the volume of the central pore, a decrease of the number and of the volume of the inter-filament and intra-filament pores, a change of the shape and dimensions of the filaments cross section. We observed delamination effects, increase of the number of inter and intra filament pores. These results complete the analysis commonly carried out at the macroscale and are necessary to build a model for the prediction of drying mechanisms of 3D printed part of cellulose and to propose more accurate compensation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, solid olive mill waste (SOMW) was used to obtain antioxidant compounds using solid–liquid extraction. The effect of different extraction methods, namely microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), Soxhlet, and conventional solvent extraction, on the yield, total phenolics, and total antioxidant activity of SOMW extracts was investigated. Untreated and dried SOMW were subjected to extraction with water and methanol. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated using the DPPH assay, while their total phenolic content was measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. For the characterisation of the extracts, HPLC-DAD analysis was performed. The results showed that the extraction yield was significantly influenced (p < 0.05) by the solvent used, the material treatment prior to extraction, the moisture content of SOMW samples, and the extraction time. The optimised parameters were water, as the extraction solvent, and MAE as the extraction technique (extraction temperature of 50 °C and time of 1 h). The evaluation of the antioxidant activity of the extracts indicated that phenolics were the dominant bioactive compounds. The extracts were found to be rich in several hydroxytyrosol derivatives. Therefore, SOMW can be a valuable resource for bioactive compounds using conventional and innovative extraction techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recovering waste from industrial food processes and developing new healthy foods as plant protein sources has been a major focus of scientific research and industrial innovation in food. Thus, the consumption of plant-based beverages from soy, oat, or almond has been promoted. In the case of almonds, the resulting solid bagasse has an interesting nutritional profile and its transformation into a powdered product could be a valuable option for the food industry. The main objective of this work was to determine the effect of hot air drying at 60 and 70 °C and freeze-drying on the physicochemical, water interaction, emulsifying and antioxidant properties of powdered almond bagasse. Furthermore, hot air-drying curves have been modelled and isotherms at 20 °C have been performed. The proximate composition of the powder revealed a protein content of 15% and a fat content of 25%, which makes it a remarkably different powder from those obtained from other vegetable residues such as fruits and vegetables. This composition was decisive in the effect of the drying method and drying temperature, and no significant differences were observed on the physico-chemical or antioxidant properties regardless of the drying method used. However, freeze-drying resulted in a powder with a more homogeneous particle size distribution and better oil-interaction properties, especially with higher emulsifying activity and stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drying herbs is a crucial method for stabilizing and preserving their essential properties and bioactive compounds. Although freeze drying is the preferred method for most herbs, it is expensive due to high energy consumption and operating costs. Biflavonoids are dimeric flavonoids that have recently been recognized as potential molecules possessing biological activities, such as antiviral and antimicrobial activity, and as effective molecules for the treatment of neurodegenerative and metabolic diseases and for cancer therapies. In this study, we performed a comparative analysis of freeze drying, air drying and oven drying to evaluate their effects on biflavonoid content in yellow ginkgo leaves (Ginkgo biloba L.). After drying, we performed spectrophotometric analysis to determine the browning index, pigments, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity, while HPLC-DAD was used for the identification and quantification of individual biflavones (amentoflavone, bilobetin, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin and sciadopitysin). The most abundant biflavonoids were isoginkgetin and bilobetin, the amounts of which exceeded 1000 µg/g dw in all leaf samples. They were followed by ginkgetin and sciadopitysin, the amounts of which were about 30% lower. The drying method did not influence biflavone content or the total carotenoids, total polyphenols and total flavonoids. Consequently, our study suggests that all three methods may be used for the preparation of yellow ginkgo leaves as a source of biflavones and other bioactive compounds.

Almond bagasse resulting after the production of almond-based drinks represents a promising by-product with potential for use as a functional ingredient. To facilitate its utilization, the stability of this material can be achieved through dehydration processes such as hot air drying or freeze-drying. Nevertheless, owing to its high fat content, almond bagasse is prone to lipid oxidation, which could result in undesirable quality. Therefore, the objective of this work was to assess the impact of dehydration (by hot air drying at 60 and 70 °C and by freeze-drying) and storage (at room temperature and in accelerated conditions) on the functional quality and stability of almond bagasse powder. Throughout the dehydration process, it was observed that antioxidant compounds were preserved without significant differences among dehydration treatments. These compounds increased over the storage period, especially in the samples treated with hot air. Regarding antiradical capacity, the hot-air-dried samples showed higher values than the freeze-dried ones, although in all cases, it increased during storage. For total phenols in samples air-dried at 70 °C, increases of more than 50% were observed. The acidity and peroxide index were increased in the extended storage period, although they did not reach critical values. Samples stored for 180 days showed peroxide values ranging from 10 to 12.8 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples stored at room temperature and from 14.7 to 23 meq O2/kg dry matter for samples subjected to accelerated storage.

Elderflower extracts are known to be a source of valuable substances that show a wide spectrum of biological activity, including antibacterial and antiviral properties, which demonstrate a degree of effectiveness against SARS CoV-2. In this work, the influence of fresh inflorescence stabilisation methods (freezing, air drying, and lyophilisation) and extraction parameters on the composition and antioxidant properties of the extracts were studied. Wild elderflower plants growing in the Małopolska Region of Poland were studied. Antioxidant activities were evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical-scavenging ability and ferric-reducing antioxidant power assays. The total phenolic content was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method and the phytochemical profile of the extracts was analysed using HPLC. The obtained results showed that the best method for the stabilisation of elderflower was lyophilisation, and the determined optimal maceration parameters were 60% methanol as a solvent and a process time of 1–2 days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Būt (Sideroxylon mascatense) is an indigenous wild blueberry found in Oman. It has a very short season and is commonly preserved by drying. The aims of this study were to determine the physico-chemical characteristics and stability of phytochemicals (i.e., polyphenols and flavonoids) in the berries during drying (i.e., freeze-drying at −40 °C and air-drying at 60 and 90 °C) and the polyphenol stability of the dried berries as a function of storage temperature (i.e., 90, 70, 60, 40, 20, and −20 °C). The moisture content of fresh berry flesh was 64.5 g/100 g sample (wet basis). The crude protein and fat contents were higher in the seeds than in the flesh. Glucose and fructose were the main sugars and their concentrations were highest in the sample air-dried at 60 °C. The initial total polyphenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of the flesh were 2.009 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry-solids and 0.199 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/g dry-solids, respectively. The samples air-dried at 90 °C and freeze-dried at −40 °C had higher TPC (i.e., 2.638 mg GAE/g dry-solids) and TFC (i.e., 0.395 mg CE/g dry-solids), respectively. There was a significant difference between the TPC and TFC of fresh and dried wild berries (p < 0.05). The freeze-dried wild berries retained a high TPC compared to the air-dried samples. The polyphenol storage stability of freeze-dried wild berries at different storage temperatures showed two phases: an initial release phase followed by a decay phase. The polyphenol storage stability was modeled using the Peleg model and the kinetic parameters were correlated with the storage temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fresh and dried Cordyceps sinensis are widely used by the public for medicinal and health purposes. However, the differences between them have not been examined. In this study, fresh wild and artificial C. sinensis (WFC and AFC) were dried to obtain dried wild and artificial C. sinensis (WDC and ADC). Non-targeted GC-MS was used to analyze the metabolic profile characteristics of the four groups of samples. The results showed that air drying significantly altered the composition and content of C. sinensis, mainly in the form of higher abundance of organic acids and derivatives and lower abundance of lipids and lipid-like molecules in fresh C. sinensis. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and quantitative analyses showed that air drying increased the abundance of Valine, Zinniol, Urocanate, Vulpinic acid, and Uridine 5’-diphosphate, and decreased Xanthotoxol, Vitexin-4-o-glucoside, Val-trp, and Wogonin. These differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were also shown to be potential biomarkers for C. sinensis. KEGG enrichment analysis identified lysine biosynthesis as the most significantly enriched pathway. Annotation of these DAMs to lysine biosynthesis revealed that citrate cycle and pyruvate metabolism entered lysine biosynthesis via 2-oxohlutarate and Homocitrate, respectively, resulting in significant enrichment of L-saccharopine and L-lysine content was significantly higher. Alanine, aspartate, and Glutamate metabolism synthesized more L-aspartate to promote L-lysine synthesis. Thus, high levels of L-lysine result in lysine degradation and pymolysine, which are the most active metabolic pathways during the drying of fresh C. sinensis and indirectly lead to differences in metabolic profiles.

In this study, Turkish lignite dried with hot air and superheated steam was experimentally investigated. Drying experiments were carried out at 120°C drying temperature and atmospheric pressure. Mass, center and surface temperature changes of lignite having a diameter of 30 mm were continuously measured. Hot air and superheated steam drying methods were compared, and it was found that, because of condensation in the initial stage of superheated steam, the moisture content of the lignite sample temporarily increased. On the contrary, the moisture content of the lignite sample dramatically reduced on drying with hot air. Six different thin-layer models describing the drying kinetics of lignite were fitted to the experimental data, with the Pusat model giving the best predictions with superheated steam drying and the Midilli model giving the best predictions with hot air drying of a single particle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the results of a survey performed in ten Romanian wood-processing companies which dry oak lumber (mainly Quercus petraea and Quercus robur, but also Quercus cerris). The purpose of this survey was to establish the current conditions applied for carrying out the drying process for these species, and to establish the aspects which need to be improved, according to the industrials' opinion. The results of this survey show the present level of applied knowledge concerning the drying of these species, but also some shortcomings that are prone to optimization. The information synthetized from the survey is to be used as starting point to set-up a plan for the scientific investigation of the conventional drying of oak lumber, especially of Quercus cerris, which has been less studied so far. Improving the drying uniformity, reducing the proportion of cracks, and drying time reduction are the main targets envisaged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of cold plasma (CP) and ultrasound wave (US) before and during air drying of cumin seeds, respectively. In this regard, different CP exposure times (15 and 30 s), sonication powers (60, 120, and 180 W), and drying air temperatures (30, 35, and 40 °C) were practiced at the velocity of 0.6 m/s to study the underlying changes in drying time, effective moisture diffusivity, energy consumption, total color change, rupture force, and microstructure of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds. It was found that CP pretreatment significantly increased effective moisture diffusivity and reduced drying time, energy consumption, and color change in the cold plasma–assisted drying program (CPCV). The morphological alteration in the seeds' surface, which accelerates water removal from the inner structure toward the surface, is the main cause of CP-induced modification in the drying process. The positive effect of CP pretreatment on the cumin seeds was intensified when it was followed by high-power sonication during air drying of the seeds. So that, the maximum reductions in drying time (46.65%), energy consumption (39.49%), total color change (40.69), and rupture force (46.84%) were in possession of 15 s CP pretreatment before ultrasound-assisted drying at the power level of 180 W. Longer exposure time (30 s) resulted in denser material with the compacted surface resulting in less color retention and increased rupture force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feasible utilization of superheated steam spray drying at different inlet temperatures (160–200 °C) and feed rates (3–15 mL/min) to produce instant coffee and sodium copper chlorophyllin (natural green colorant) powders was assessed. Yield, physical properties and morphology of the steam-dried powder were determined and compared with those of the air-dried one. Superheated steam spray drying might not be a proper method for producing coffee powder as at all test conditions coffee extract adhered and dried on the wall of the chamber. Superheated steam spray drying, on the other hand, has the potential to produce the color powder with smaller particle size, higher bulk density and more wrinkle surfaces, resulting in the superior solubility. Mean diameter (D[4,3]), bulk density and solubility time of the steam-dried powder were 15.53–15.97 µm, 0.67–0.68 g/cm3 and 192–226 s, while those of the air-dried powder were 29.03–31.02 µm, 0.34–0.35 g/cm3 and 244–283 s, respectively. In terms of yield and color, both of the powders and of the reconstituted solutions, no significant differences among the air-dried and steam-dried powders were observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shrinkage of the connective tissue and myofiber of lamb meat submitted to heat treatment or air drying at different storage stages (1, 5 and 7 days) was evaluated herein. The longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of heated lamb meat was significantly influenced by storage time and water bath heating temperature (50 °C, 70 °C and 90 °C) (p < 0.001). In contrast, the shrinkage of air-dried lamb meat was not influenced by storage time (p > 0.05). The microstructure of heated lamb meat, namely, the distance between muscle fascicles, the distance between myofibril networks, the area of myofibril networks, and the endomysium circumference, was significantly influenced by storage time (p < 0.05). During storage, the proportion of muscle fibers completely detached from endomysium increased, which could be due to the progressive degradation of proteins linking the endomysium and myofibril, including β-dystroglycan, α-dystroglycan, integrin-β1, and dystrophin. However, degradation of such proteins did not influence the shrinkage of lamb meat stored for five days or longer, since the decreased distance between myofibril networks indicated a higher shrinkage ratio of the endomysium compared to myofibers in samples air-dried at 35 °C or heated at 90 °C. The effect of these proteins on the shrinkage of heated lamb meat (raw meat stored for 1 day or less time) requires further elucidation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, solid olive mill waste (SOMW) was used to obtain antioxidant compounds using solid–liquid extraction. The effect of different extraction methods, namely microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), Soxhlet, and conventional solvent extraction, on the yield, total phenolics, and total antioxidant activity of SOMW extracts was investigated. Untreated and dried SOMW were subjected to extraction with water and methanol. The antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated using the DPPH assay, while their total phenolic content was measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. For the characterisation of the extracts, HPLC-DAD analysis was performed. The results showed that the extraction yield was significantly influenced (p < 0.05) by the solvent used, the material treatment prior to extraction, the moisture content of SOMW samples, and the extraction time. The optimised parameters were water, as the extraction solvent, and MAE as the extraction technique (extraction temperature of 50 °C and time of 1 h). The evaluation of the antioxidant activity of the extracts indicated that phenolics were the dominant bioactive compounds. The extracts were found to be rich in several hydroxytyrosol derivatives. Therefore, SOMW can be a valuable resource for bioactive compounds using conventional and innovative extraction techniques.

The effects of the Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) technology on the recovery of natural compounds from the brown seaweed Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt 1955 (Ochrophytina, Fucales) were investigated. Fresh biomass of S. muticum was collected on the Brittany Coast, France. Both fresh and Air Impingement-Dried (AID) thalli of 3 and 10 cm length were submitted to DIC during 20 s or 90 s of processing time under 100 or 800 kPa of saturated steam pressure. DIC treatment significantly improved the extraction of sulphate groups at 90 s, and carotene at 20 s under 100 kPa in thalli of 10 cm. While, coupling AID to DIC, the content of neutral sugars, proteins and antioxidants were higher in AID + DIC treatments. Further, a significant increase of 20 % in fucose-containing sulfated polysaccharides and 30 % in sodium alginate under 100 kPa during 90 s, compared to oven-dried, was observed. The biomass of the invasive S. muticum treated by DIC and AID + DIC represented a valuable contribution for extraction of natural compounds. Advantages for industrial integration of DIC were discussed. [Display omitted] • DIC or Instant Controlled Pressure Drop was a suitable treatment for S. muticum. • DIC allowed to extract significantly higher content of sulphate groups and pigments. • Air Impingement Drying + DIC improved the fucoidan and sodium alginate extractions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In this research, Aspergillus niger inhibition with ethanol and methanol extracts of apricot leaves in cherry juice was investigated. Aspergillus niger concentration 3.5 log cfu/mL is determined in control cample (ju). Ethanolic (air-dried, microwave-dried) and methanolic (air-dried, microwave-dried) extracts (1 mL) are added to cherry juice (9 mL), separately. They were left for incubation at 25°C for 3 minutes. Then Aspergillus niger (1 mL) is put into test tubes on extracts and left for incubation at 25°C for 24 h. All extracts significantly reduced Aspergillus niger numbers in cherry juice compared to control samples. The highest inhibitory activity was detected in the sample extracted with methanol from microwave-dried apricot leaves (2.94 log cfu/mL). The effect of apricot leaves’ ethanol extract was found to be higher than methanol extract, except the samples dried in microwave. The reason for this might be that the phenolic compounds in apricot leaves are more soluble in ethanol than in methanol when they dried in air. Additionally, the heat applied in the microwave might have damaged the phenolic compounds found in apricot leaves. These results demonstrated that apricot leaves can be used for decrease Aspergillus niger in cherry juice at 25°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Būt (Sideroxylon mascatense) is an indigenous wild blueberry found in Oman. It has a very short season and is commonly preserved by drying. The aims of this study were to determine the physico-chemical characteristics and stability of phytochemicals (i.e., polyphenols and flavonoids) in the berries during drying (i.e., freeze-drying at −40 °C and air-drying at 60 and 90 °C) and the polyphenol stability of the dried berries as a function of storage temperature (i.e., 90, 70, 60, 40, 20, and −20 °C). The moisture content of fresh berry flesh was 64.5 g/100 g sample (wet basis). The crude protein and fat contents were higher in the seeds than in the flesh. Glucose and fructose were the main sugars and their concentrations were highest in the sample air-dried at 60 °C. The initial total polyphenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) of the flesh were 2.009 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry-solids and 0.199 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/g dry-solids, respectively. The samples air-dried at 90 °C and freeze-dried at −40 °C had higher TPC (i.e., 2.638 mg GAE/g dry-solids) and TFC (i.e., 0.395 mg CE/g dry-solids), respectively. There was a significant difference between the TPC and TFC of fresh and dried wild berries (p < 0.05). The freeze-dried wild berries retained a high TPC compared to the air-dried samples. The polyphenol storage stability of freeze-dried wild berries at different storage temperatures showed two phases: an initial release phase followed by a decay phase. The polyphenol storage stability was modeled using the Peleg model and the kinetic parameters were correlated with the storage temperature.

The incorporation of red raspberries in bakery and dairy products is limited due to the fragility of the berries. This compromises the appearance of the food product due to the bleeding of juice caused by tissue rupture. In this study, we developed vacuum-impregnated dehydrofrozen red raspberries from fresh fruit. Initially, we optimized drying and freezing conditions for red raspberries that were not vacuum impregnated using air drying alone and in combination with osmotic dehydration, followed by air blasting and cryogenic freezing methods. Later, optimal conditions of partial drying and freezing were used for raspberries that were vacuum impregnated with low methoxyl pectin (LMP) at 10 g of pectin kg−1 of solution and calcium chloride (CaCl2 · 2H2O) at 30 g of calcium kg−1 of pectin. Conditions for the vacuum impregnation of raspberries were based on our previous research. The berries were partially dehydrated using hot air (65 °C) until a final water content of 0.65 g of water g−1 of fruit was reached. Next, the berries were placed in glass jars, sealed, and cooled at 4 °C for 2 h. They were then frozen by air blasting and stored for 2 months at −35 °C prior to evaluation. The mechanical properties of the berries, including the maximum force (FM) and gradient (GC), were considered to be suitable indicators of fruit firmness. Results demonstrate that raspberries impregnated with pectin and calcium and then partially dried and frozen have higher FM and GC values than commercially frozen-thawed berries. These dehydrofrozen raspberries show improved structural integrity for use in bakery and dairy products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complexities of wood microstructure cause difficulties in understanding water movement characteristics during drying. Here, the water transport dynamics in softwood (Japanese cypress) with different sample lengths (30 mm, 60 mm, and 90 mm) and various drying temperatures (30 °C, 60 °C, and 90 °C) were studied using a rapid and high-resolution moisture content (MC) mapping method based on long-wave near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI). The observations of this study are as follows: slow drying at approximately 30 °C, the area near the subsurface of the wood samples tends to have higher MC than the central parts during drying, especially in the case of longer wood samples. For drying at higher temperatures, strongly bonded water appeared at the surface areas much earlier, which could easily cause sample deformation and cracking. Overall, the experimental results suggest the capillary effects could play a major role at the first stage of slow drying at fiber level; then, the transfers between bound and free water could play a significant power source in the second drying stage. It is expected that this study will be of help in providing a basis to study and simulate the drying characteristics of cellular and hydrophilic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of air velocity and temperature on the drying curves of the invasive brown alga Sargassum muticum was evaluated. An air impingement dryer was applied at five air velocities and four air temperatures. The equilibrium moisture content was properly modeled by Oswin, Halsey, and GAB models. Fick's diffusional model was employed to identify the apparent moisture diffusivity. The variations of the diffusivity versus temperature and velocity were determined. Three semi‐empirical expressions, namely, Page, two‐term, and Henderson‐Pabis modified equations were selected to fit the drying kinetics. The two‐term equation was the most appropriate to model the experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work proposes using microencapsulation, ethanol, ultrasound and convective drying to obtain iron fortified pineapple chips. Iron microparticles were produced by ferrous sulphate encapsulation with maltodextrin by spray drying. As a hydrophilic material, microparticles were dispersed in ethanol to be incorporated into the pineapple tissue, with or without the application of ultrasound. Then, the effect of different pre-treatment times with ethanol and ethanol + ultrasound was evaluated on pineapple drying. Finally, the residue of ethanol was evaluated in the final products. Pre-treatment with ethanol and ethanol + ultrasound allowed to increase significantly the iron content of pineapple chips (up to 1000% in comparison with control). In addition, the drying time decreased from 35.4 to 51.9% with the utilization of ethanol and ultrasound. Pre-treatment for 7.5 min allowed to reduce the drying time and to achieve negligible residual ethanol in the sample. The results demonstrated that the combination of the proposed technologies can be used to obtain pineapple chips enriched in iron, with reduced time of drying and a negligible residue of ethanol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sediment humic substance (SHS) is a highly heterogeneous and complex organic mixture with a broad molecular weight range. It is the significant component that associates distribution, transport, and biotoxicity of pollutants in a river environment. Air- and freeze-drying sediment pre-treatment may cause different biological activity and may result in different chemical quantities and sediment organic matter. This study collected sediments that received livestock wastewater discharge. The sediments were air- (AD) and freeze-dried (FD). The dried sediment organic matter was extracted with an alkaline solution and separated into three size-fractioned SHS samples. Size-fractioning is an effective method used to differentiate materials, on a molecular level. The bulk solution (<0.45 μm) was designated as BHS, and size-fractioned solutions were identified as LHS (<1 kDa), MHS (1–10 kDa), and HHS (10 kDa–0.45 μm). The AD SHS had a lower dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration than the FD SHS for the bulk and individual size-fractioned SHS, but the AD and FD SHS had a similar distribution of organic carbon in the size-fractioned SHS. The AD SHS had higher aromaticity (SUVA254) and an extent of humification (HIX) than the FD SHS. In addition, the high molecular weight SHS (HHS) had a higher SUVA254 but lower HIX than the MHS and LHS. The HHS had significantly lower fulvic acid but had higher humic acid-like substances than the MHS and LHS. This is possibly the reason the LHS had a higher humification degree but lower aromaticity than HHS. The size-fractioned SHS and optical indicators distinguished the difference between the chemical properties when air- or freeze-dried, due to the different degree of biological activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The organic-inorganic network imparts rigidity and strength to cellulose-based foams. • Foaming and air drying enable scalable production of cellulose-based foams. • Cellulose composite foams combine high compressive strength with low density. • Cellulose composite foams possess recyclability, biodegradability, and scalability. Lightweight and high-strength cellulose-based foams have gained increasing momentum due to their combination of sustainability and high performance. However, complex modification to cellulose fibers can sacrifice the environmental friendliness and further limit productional scalability. Here, we engineer lightweight yet strong cellulose-based foams made from mechanically treated microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), reinforced by organic-inorganic network, and scaled by surfactant foaming combined with air drying. Consisting of strong coordination and extensive secondary interaction within the organic-inorganic network, the resulting cellulose composite foams achieve both a high compressive modulus of 451.3 kPa and a yield strength of 25.1 kPa at a low density of 32.9 mg cm−3, which exceed other MFC-based foams based on surfactant foaming. In addition, the incorporation of the organic-inorganic network has no negative effect on the scalability, recyclability, or biodegradability of cellulose composites foam, making closed-loop material recycling possible. The life-cycle assessment reveals that replacing petroleum-based foams with our cellulose composite foams result in substantial reductions in carbon emissions. The structural design and manufacturing of our cellulose-based foam can stimulate market interest for cellulose foam and the development of the bioeconomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The shrinkage of the connective tissue and myofiber of lamb meat submitted to heat treatment or air drying at different storage stages (1, 5 and 7 days) was evaluated herein. The longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of heated lamb meat was significantly influenced by storage time and water bath heating temperature (50 °C, 70 °C and 90 °C) (p < 0.001). In contrast, the shrinkage of air-dried lamb meat was not influenced by storage time (p > 0.05). The microstructure of heated lamb meat, namely, the distance between muscle fascicles, the distance between myofibril networks, the area of myofibril networks, and the endomysium circumference, was significantly influenced by storage time (p < 0.05). During storage, the proportion of muscle fibers completely detached from endomysium increased, which could be due to the progressive degradation of proteins linking the endomysium and myofibril, including β-dystroglycan, α-dystroglycan, integrin-β1, and dystrophin. However, degradation of such proteins did not influence the shrinkage of lamb meat stored for five days or longer, since the decreased distance between myofibril networks indicated a higher shrinkage ratio of the endomysium compared to myofibers in samples air-dried at 35 °C or heated at 90 °C. The effect of these proteins on the shrinkage of heated lamb meat (raw meat stored for 1 day or less time) requires further elucidation.

The hot air convective drying of blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) in a thin layer was performed using a laboratory-scale dryer. The experiments were carried out at drying air temperatures of 60, 70 and 80 o C, and drying air velocities of 0.5 and 1.5 m/s. At higher values of the drying air temperature and the drying air velocity, less time was required for the convective drying of blueberries, i.e. the drying time of blueberries decreased with increasing drying air temperatures and velocities. The experimental data obtained during the drying process were fitted to ten different mathematical models. The Midilli et al. model was found to be the most appropriate model for explaining the drying behavior of blueberries during convective drying. Effective moisture diffusion coefficients were calculated using the Fick's diffusion model, ranging from 9.66 x 10-12 m2 /s to 9.67 x 10-11 m2 /s. These values were found to increase proportionally with the increase in drying air temperatures and velocities. The lowest total color change and shrinkage of dried blueberries were recorded during freeze drying. A water activity less than 0.6 was measured at a blueberry moisture content of 0.235 kgw/kgd.m, a drying air temperature of 26 o C and a relative air humidity of 60 %.

Ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale) is widely used as a spice or as a medicinal plant. The major bioactive compound in fresh ginger rhizome is 6-gingerol and it is known for having a number of physiological effects. This compound is heat-sensitive and during cooking or drying will transform into 6-shogaol. Hence, the 6- gingerol content is used to evaluate the quality of dried ginger. The content of 6-gingerol during drying was measured using HPLC. Several factors that could affect the 6-gingerol content were considered and a predictive model for changes in 6-gingerol has been developed from the experimental data. The predictive model includes a single term drying model that predicts the changes of moisture content during drying. Drying time and relative humidity (ranging from 10% to 40%) impacted 6-gingerol content whereas drying air temperature (ranging from 30ºC to 60ºC) had a lesser effect. It was also found that the 6-gingerol content in fresh rhizomes was highly variable and thus required thorough testing prior to drying to be able to make the prediction more accurate.

The influence of air-drying (AD), convection oven (CO) and solar drying (SOD) on the physical and chemical properties of Ilex guayusa leaves is discussed. Total ash (%), acid-insoluble ash (%), watersoluble ash (%), residual moisture (%) and caffeine content (%) were estimated. Additionally, alkaloids, flavonoids, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, quinones, fats, phenols and tannins detection of dry leaves extracts were assessed. The results revealed that parameters of physical analysis were not affected by the drying techniques. The highest amount of secondary metabolites in ethanol and aqueous extracts were detected. In general, convection oven dried leaves showed the highest caffeine content (3.71%) and the lowest drying time (13 h) compared to other drying methods. The results revealed a fast method to dry Ilex guayusa leaves and indicate that this species possess a variety of bioactive compounds beneficial for health. Our results revealed an effective quick method to dry Ilex guayusa leaves without altering the content of beneficial bioactive components.

An original drying process combining air impingement and intermittent drying was studied on apple slices and mango cubes. The influence of four operating parameters (air velocity, drying/tempering periods, upper height, and air temperature) on the drying time and on the drying rate was evaluated. Continuous and intermittent drying were compared. The intermittency α = 1/7 (τon = 10 seconds and τoff = 60 seconds) gave the best results. A time savings of 54% for apple and 67% for mango was reached. In continuous drying, a time savings of 4620 seconds was observed by increasing the air velocity from 6 to 40 m s−1 for apple. Air temperatures of 328 K for apple and of 328 K or 338 K for mango were determined as optimum to prevent case‐hardening. Experimental results were fitted with the analytical solution of Fick's second law and the modified Page equation (average values R2 = 0.985 and 0.961, for apple and mango, respectively). For both products, the apparent moisture diffusivity Dapp, the drying constant k, the drying coefficient n, and the activation energy Ea, were identified. Activation energies calculated from the analytical solution were 30.3 and 36.8 kJ mol−1 and were 25.4 and 30.0 kJ mol−1 using the modified Page equation for apple and mango, respectively. Mango has an increased temperature sensitivity and thus will need less energy for drying than apple. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Histology is the microscopic study of cells and tissues through staining, sectioning and examining them under a microscope. Staining the histological sections is a series of technique processes undertaken in the preparation of sample tissues by staining using histological stains to highlight important features of the tissue as well as to enhance the tissue contrast to aid in the microscope study. Cytopathology provide researchers and clinicians with a relatively simple and fast diagnostic tool that is widely accepted in the scientific community. Various cytological stains are available for the diagnosis of orofacial lesions. The need of our study is to compare and assess the quality of Modified Ultra-Fast Papanicolaou in fine needle aspiration smear and fluid samples of head & neck swellings with routine Papanicolaoustain & Leishman Giemsa Cocktail stain. Methods: The present study included 30 samples from patients with Orofacial lesions. Three smears from each sample, a total of 90 smears were obtained in clean glass slides and stained with Conventional PAP, MUFP and LG Cocktail stain. Results: MUFP stain showed maximum score for all four parameters. 100% clean back ground, 83.3% well preserved cell morphology, 80% good nuclear characteristics, 76.7% Overall staining pattern. The air drying artifacts were comparatively less in MUFP stained smears because of rehydration of air dried smears with saline which also makes the MUFP stained smears superior to the LG cocktail stained and the PAP stained smears with a clean background and less air-drying artifacts. LeishmanGiemsa Cocktail stained smears were less superior to MUFP with 80% of them showing clean background, 46% showing crisp nuclear details, Followed by Conventional PAP stain. Interpretation and Conclusion: From our study it is recommended that Modified ultrafast pap stain is an excellent staining method for studying the cytology of orofacial lesions, followed by LeishmanGiemsa Cocktail and Conventional Pap stain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Real-time monitoring of the dynamic state of water molecular structure in lignocellulosic material is challenging, but important for both theoretical studies and industrial applications. In the present study, three typical wood samples which have a fundamental difference in the anatomical structure were scanned in the near-infrared spectral range, and images were acquired from wavelengths of 1002–1847 nm during drying. Then, partial least squares regression was used to determine the water content by mass, and principal component analysis was utilized to characterize the variance of NIR difference spectral data between 1340 and 1610 nm after baseline correlation for showing the distribution changing from free water to bound water during air drying. It was clarified that the PC1 loading mainly correlates with simple water content by mass, whereas the PC2 loading contains information about water–wood hydrogen structure interactions. The three loading curve peaks of PC2 could be correlated with free, weakly bound, and strongly bound water based on longer wavelength shifting. Finally, PC1 and PC2 scores were comprehensively applied to show the distribution changing from free water to bound water in each wood sample with a 62.5 μm/pixel high spatial resolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most important chemicals common in Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves are polyphenols and tannins. They are synthesised during development and the amount and composition are primarily dependent on environmental conditions and factors such as leaf harvesting. Trials were conducted in the Gauteng Province at the University of Pretoria Experimental Farm on Hillcrest Campus (250 45′ 08.6″S, 280 15′ 30.S" E), with an altitude of 1372 m above sea level and an average annual rainfall of 640 mm. Five year old M. oleifera tree orchard were used for this study and treatments were laid in a randomised complete block design, where 12 plants were used in each plot within a row, with a plant spacing of 2 × 2 m2. Partial harvesting was done at 25% leaf removal, while severe leaf harvesting was done at 75% leaf removal. The control trees were not harvested, but only leaf (mature and immature) samples were harvested for analyses. Leaf samples from all plots were harvested in September, November, February and May in years 1 and 2. Leaf samples (equal quantities of immature and mature leaves) from partially, severely harvested and control plots were harvested and separated into batches, one to be analysed as fresh material and the other as dry material. The dry material was placed in paper bags and allowed to immediately air dry under normal room conditions of 26 °C. Partially harvested M. oleifera leaves produced an increased accumulation of total phenolic content (TPC) 35–44 g/kg dry weight, from spring to summer season, in comparison to severe harvesting 26–35 g/kg dry weight. With severe leaf harvesting (75%), because of probable lower photosynthetic capacity, phenols across September to May of years 1 and 2 decreased. The onset of low temperatures in May resulted mostly higher TPC and tannin build up, which means that cold stress may improve more bio-active compounds in the leaves. Dark and fully developed mature leaves mainly contained the highest amount of TPC. Moringa oleifera leaves collected and dried at each harvesting interval, instead of freshly milled, do show the same quantity of TPC and tannins across the season illustrating that air drying can be used as a post-harvest handling technique, extending shelf life without losses of vital phenols. With harvesting severity as a concern in Moringa , this study confirms that the TPC and tannins in mature and immature leaves did not rise to toxic levels for human consumption. • Partial leaf harvesting is a good harvesting practise for Gauteng province, SA. • Low temperatures may result in higher TPC and tannin build up in leaves. • Air dried Moringa leaves do not lose more TPC in comparison to freshly harvested leaves. • Air drying is recommended to extend shelf life of Moringa leaves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]