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COVID-19 has gripped the world with lightning speed. Since the onset of the pandemic, activity throughout the world came to a grinding halt. However, business had to continue and people have to learn to live with the virus while the pandemic continues to rage. Medical education is no exception and may even deserve special mention, as it prepares frontline workers against the endemics of tomorrow. We discuss here the journey of medical education at the College of Medicine and Health Sciences at Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman, as the pandemic struck the world and Oman. This work suggests a roadmap for changes, discusses challenges and proposes measures to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 on medical schools.

Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is the most common inherited monogenic lipid disorder. It is caused by mutations of genes related to low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors, apolipoprotein B or proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9). Homozygous FH (HoFH; 1/400,000 births) is treated by LDL apheresis. Recently lomitapide has been used for the treatment of HoFH as a monotherapy or in addition to LDL apheresis. Heterozygous FH (HeFH), 1/250-1/200 births, is associated with an increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. The main treatment for HeFH has been high doses of high intensity statins plus ezetimibe. However, this is not usually enough to attain LDL-C targets, especially in those with overt CVD or equivalents (LDL-C goal of, Hypertriglyceridaemia may occur partly due to genetic variation. About 30 genes may be involved. There are also rare mutations (e.g. in apolipoprotein C2, A5 and E, as well as lipoprotein lipase) that can contribute to hypertriglyceridaemia. The genome-wide association studies (GWAS) suggest links with cardiovascular disease (CVD). These genetic abnormalities are aggravated, or “expressed”, by the presence of lifestyle factors (e.g. excess alcohol intake, obesity, metabolic syndrome and smoking), administration of drugs (e.g. steroids, diuretics, beta-blockers, colesevelam, tamoxifen or estrogens) and occurrence of diseases (e.g. hypothyroidism, liver disease, diabetes or kidney disease). We need to agree on the definition of hypertriglyceridaemia. Values vary according to different guidelines. We also need to establish whether we can use fasting and/or post-prandial levels in routine clinical practice and how genetic abnormalities affect these levels. It is difficult to be sure if hypertriglyceridaemia (fasting and/or post-prandial) predicts vascular risk independently or if this association occurs because of links with other factors [e.g. obesity, decreased high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, insulin resistance, remnant particles, small dense low density lipoprotein (LDL) and adverse haemostatic effects]. Markedly elevated triglyceride levels are associated with an increased risk of acute pancreatitis. Treatment is a priority in such situations. In the presence of hypertriglyceridaemia, using non-HDL-cholesterol levels as the treatment target is preferable to LDL-cholesterol levels., Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a complication of the metabolic syndrome (MetS). However, not all patients with MetS develop NAFLD. This susceptibility could be due to variable sensitivity to hormones that regulate hepatic lipid content. Growth Hormone (GH) in the liver induces triacylglyceride uptake and also induces hepatic lipogenesis. These activities are counteracted by enhanced hepatic very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion leading to lower lipid accumulation. Patients with NAFLD have lower plasma GH levels than controls. Furthermore, adult GH deficiency is associated with NAFLD and patients resemble the MetS and 29% of children with GH deficiency developed NAFLD after cessation of GH therapy. Reduced steatosis is observed in GH transgenic mice and after GH replacement therapy in adults with GH deficiency. The protective action of GH on liver steatosis has also been highlighted in genetic studies showing the hepatic inactivation of the GH receptor, its associated kinase, JAK2 or its downstream signaling intermediary STAT5b, all lead to hepatic steatosis. Due to the disruption of hepatic IGF-1 production, the negative feedback regulation on GH secretion is disrupted and these mice exhibit elevated circulating levels of GH and consequently increased peripheral lipolysis. Our recent studies identified a negative feedback inhibition of GH actions in the cell through SOCS2 protein. Our findings show that deletion of SOCS2 leads to enhanced cellular sensitivity to GH and this has protective effect on diet-induced fatty liver. The decreased fatty liver in the GH sensitive mice was explained by increased hepatic release of VLDL., The INTERHEART study found that the mean age of the first presentation of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) was 10 years younger in the Middle East countries compared with the other regions of the world. These findings were attributed to the early onset of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) risk factors, the two most prevalent being smoking and hypercholesterolaemia. Familial Hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is an inherited autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations mainly in the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, apolipoprotein B (apo B) and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) genes, that result in the decreased clearance of LDL particles from the circulation, significant increase of plasma LDL cholesterol and the manifestation of severe atherosclerosis and CVD. FH prevalence in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is unknown. The expected FH cases in the MENA region according to the population size and the prevalence of 1:500 estimation is around 764437 cases. There are approximately 57 reported FH cases in the MENA region (i.e. representing only 0.01% of FH prevalence), thus FH remains significantly underreported compared with countries like the Netherlands (71% reported FH cases). Several factors could contribute to the under-diagnosis and under-treatment of FH cases in the MENA region. These include the lack of FH screening programs and established lipid clinic networks as well as the limited presence of established centers for molecular diagnosis and LDL-apheresis therapy. All these challenges need to be addressed in order to improve the gap for identification and treatment of FH in the MENA region., The prevalence and incidence of obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidaemia in the Middle East and North African (MENA) countries has increased significantly. This has led to a substantial increase in morbidity and mortality from cardio- and cerebro-vascular events. Proper strategies that depend on prevention, early detection, adequate management and easy access to health care should be established to manage these cardiometabolic diseases. A well-designed national survey in each country is required to achieve this goal and as well as gathering relevant specific data on the prevalence burden and cost of these diseases, collaboration between all parties involved with these conditions, improved awareness and education of the population and facilitate access to health care. These steps will not be achievable without a proper national program with a clear plan for implementation, monitoring and evaluation of these cardiometabolic diseases. Primary health care should play the main role in the implementation of these strategies as well as in the management of these conditions with appropriate support from secondary and tertiary health services. This lecture highlights the importance and possible implementation of these strategies and the role of concerned societies such as the Oman Society of Lipid and Atherosclerosis (OSLA) in this regard., Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a disorder of energy utilization and storage. It is a multiplex risk factor that arises from insulin resistance accompanying abnormal adipose deposition and function. It is a risk factor for coronary heart disease, as well as for diabetes, fatty liver and several cancers. Some studies have shown the prevalence of MetS in the USA to be up to 34% of the adult population and increasing with age. MetS prevalence is also high in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. In this context, MetS prevalence in United Arab Emirates (UAE) is 23%, in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) 39%, in Oman 21%, in Jordan 36% and in Qatar 28%. In addition, the analysis of the Gulf Registry of Acute Coronary Events (Gulf RACE), showed the overall prevalence of MetS in patients with acute coronary syndrome is 46% in six Middle Eastern countrie, with higher prevalence in females. This is associated with higher recurrent ischemia and development of chronic heart failure compared with patients without the syndrome. Data support that the prevalence of all MetS components, i.e. insulin resistance, central obesity, hypertension and dyslipidaemia, are very high in the region. These data support that more aggressive and holistic strategies need to be implemented to treat MetS., Higher plasma triglyceride (TG) levels and decreased high-density lipoproteins (HDL) concentrations are usually accompanied by the presence of small, dense low-density lipoproteins (LDL) in the so-called “atherogenic dyslipidaemia” that is associated with abdominal obesity and insulin resistance and represents one of the components of the metabolic syndrome. Atherogenic dyslipidaemia is closely associated with endothelial dysfunction as well as with enhanced oxidative stress. Both atherogenic dyslipidaemia and oxidative stress are key mechanisms linked to the development and progression of atherosclerosis. The accumulation of LDL particles within the vascular wall represents the most prominent feature of atherogenesis and small, dense LDL particles are particularly atherogenic in comparison with larger, more buoyant subspecies because of their longer residence in the bloodstream, preferential penetration through the endothelial barrier and greater oxidative susceptibility. Enhanced oxidative stress and oxidative modifications are considered as the initial steps for LDL conversion into more atherogenic particles. The magnitude and independence of the association of small, dense LDL with cardiovascular risk has been reviewed and discussed in the first European Panel Statement on LDL subclasses. Lipid lowering agents are able to favourably modulate the distinct components of atherogenic dyslipidaemia; in addition, interesting data are coming from the use of incretin-based therapies in patients with type-2 diabetes. These novel anti-diabetic agents are able to decrease TG levels as well as to increase HDL-cholesterol concentrations. Preliminary data suggest that incretin-based therapies may also reduce levels of small, dense LDL in patients with type-2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome., The plasma levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol are inversely correlated with the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). HDL particles differ in their lipid and protein composition, as well as in particle size and density. HDL protects against atherosclerosis primarily by inducing reverse cholesterol transport. HDL also exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic and anti-apoptotic effects. An important role in the HDL antiatherogenic activities is lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), which is independently associated with lower risk for cardiac death in CVD patients. The cardioprotective role of HDL is further supported by studies using reconstituted HDL particles (rHDL). These studies demonstrated that infusion of rHDL in animal models and humans leads to acute changes in atherosclerotic plaques. Changes in HDL protein composition attributable to infection, oxidative stress, inflammation or diabetes, are associated with decreased HDL antiatherogenic potency (acute phase HDL or dysfunctional HDL). Dysfunctional HDL has been identified in diabetic and CVD subjects. Raising HDL-cholesterol using specific cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors (torcetrapib and dalcetrapib) is not associated with an improvement in clinical outcomes. Furthermore, Mendelian randomisation studies do not support the causal association of low HDL with atherosclerosis. These findings raise serious concerns regarding the cardioprotective role of HDL. Thus, several unresolved questions remain to be answered before we reach any definite conclusion for the causal role of HDL in CVD.

The obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome (OSAHS) is a common disorder, affecting around 2-4% of the middle-aged population. There is a strong association between OSAHS and hypertension, based on animal, large epidemiological and interventional studies. The epidemiological studies have shown a dose-response relationship between apnoea/hypopnoea index (AHI) and the risk of developing hypertension. Different mechanisms may have a role in the process of elevated blood pressure in OSAHS. Sympathetic activity is increased in OSAHS patients during sleep and wakefulness. This increase in sympathetic activity is probably due to activation of baroreflexes and chemoreflexes by frequent arousals and hypoxaemia a result of apnoea or hypopnoea events. Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) has been shown to reduce sympathetic stimulation and blood pressure in OSAHS patients. Altered endothelial function may also have a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension in OSAHS subjects. Reduction of nitric oxide (NO) production and increase in the formation of free radicals may be responsible for the impairment of the vasodilatation of micro-vasculature in these subjects as a result of hypoxaemia. It has been shown that effective CPAP therapy has a reversible effect on endothelial dysfunction.

Objectives: To determine the reference values of arterial stiffness indices, particularly augmentation index (AIx) and pulse wave velocity (PWV) using applanation tonometry in a healthy Omani Arab population. Methods: This prospective study was carried out in the Department of Clinical Physiology, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Muscat, Oman over a 2-year period from June 2011 to June 2013. The central AIx, aortic PWV (AoPWV), and central pulse pressure (CPP) were recorded from 120 healthy subjects recruited randomly from a normal population using a SphygmoCor device. The 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles were used to determine the reference ranges for men and women separately. Analyses were performed using univariate statistics. Results: The mean age of the cohort was 38 years for men, and 35 years for women, with the ages ranging from 20-53 years. The overall mean central AIx was 13±11%, and for AoPWV was 6.7±1.6 m/s. The central AIx was higher in women (17 versus 10%; p