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The study utilizes Grice's (1975) conversational maxims (quality, quantity, relation, and manner) which make up the cooperative principle to investigate how and why Jordanians flout the maxims in their everyday conversations. There are many studies that examine speakers' non-observance of the conversational maxims in everyday conversations. However, this study aims to advance pragmatic theory by illuminating the new pragmatic strategies of Jordanian speakers' non-observance of maxims (flouting) and classifying them in accordance with these Grice's maxims for the purpose of developing a framework that can help researchers classify data into pragmatic strategies and linguistic forms based on flouting of these maxims and how this flouting functions. This study also aims to show how nonobservance constitutes an important factor in helping the addressee realize the intended meaning and maintain stronger relationships between Jordanian speakers as well. Furthermore, this study identifies the most prominent maxims that are flouted in such everyday conversations. Among the main findings is that Jordanian speakers flout maxims as an indication or hint for an implicature that the speaker makes for positive purposes that aim to maintain and strengthen social intimacy. Additionally, this study offers more in-depth explanations of the relationships between flouting's dimensions, drawing on micro, meso and macro concepts as one way to depict how implicature is made by the speaker and grasped by the hearer for securing social goals in Jordanian Arabic.

Background: Hyperglycemic metabolic disorders such as diabetes can impair gastrointestinal (GI) physiological functions leading to multiple digestive manifestations. Oxidative stress which is an imbalance between reactive oxygen species production and antioxidants is contributed to GI complications that occur during hyperglycemia. Aim: To investigate the effect of high-glucose concentration on the antioxidant enzymes in the GI tract. Methods: Small intestine and colon tissues extracted from rats were incubated in a high-glucose medium for 3 hours. Following tissue homogenization, antioxidant enzyme activity and expression were evaluated. Results: Catalase (CAT) activity was increased in the small intestine (1742 ± 113.1–2265 ± 242.4 [mU/mL]) and decreased in the colon (3791 ± 516.2–1532 ± 292.9). Total antioxidant capacity was decreased in the small intestine (10.1 ± 1.83–9.048 ± 0.441 [nmole/μl]) and increased in the colon (8.114 ± 0.9–11.01 ± 0.99). Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of antioxidant enzymes in the small intestine was increased (CAT: 0.03941 ± 0.0041–0.1917 ± 0.0165, glutathione peroxidase 1 [GPx1]: 1.156 ± 0.0855–16.24 ± 1.618, glutathione reductase [GR]: 0.0413 ± 0.0014-0.1549 ± 0.0145, superoxide dismutase 1 [SOD1]: 1.03 ± 0.1095–8.52 ± 0.471, SOD2: 0.00106 ± 3.559e-005–0.0028 ± 0.00052, SOD3: 0.0352 ± 0.0044–0.0493 ± 0.0223). mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes in the colon was decreased (CAT: 0.02148 ± 0.0032–0.01057 ± 0.0014, GPx1: 0.48 ± 0.146–0.1090 ± 0.0209, GPx4: 0.2391 ± 0.063–0.01671 ± 0.0019, GR: 0.0393 ± 0.0031–0.0093 ± 0.0014, SOD1: 0.389 ± 0.1159–0.088 ± 0.0251, SOD2: 0.000934 ± 0.00020–0.000233 ± 2.39023e-05, SOD3: 0.0114 ± 0.00107–0.0017 ± 0.000176). Conclusion: Most of the results indicate a state of oxidative stress in the GI tract mediated by the exposure to high glucose level. Diabetic GI complications could be reversed using specific modalities that act to increase the antioxidant capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Anemia and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are common findings in diabetic patients. Lack of glycemic control is associated with increased risk of diabetic complications. This study aimed to determine the effect of poor glycemic control on the prevalence and determinants of anemia and CKD among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients in Jordan. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was used in this research. T2DM patients with controlled diabetes (HbA1c ≤7.0%, n = 120) and age-, gender- and body mass index–matched uncontrolled diabetic patients (HbA1c >7.0%, n = 120) were recruited. Blood sample for HbA1c and serum insulin measurement were obtained. Complete blood count and kidney function test results were obtained from the patient's medical records. Anemia was determined according to World Health Organization criteria. A binomial logistic regression was performed to ascertain the effects of age, gender, CKD and glycemic control on the likelihood that participants have anemia. Results: The prevalence of anemia was significantly higher in the uncontrolled T2DM compared to controlled T2DM patients (40% vs 27.5%, OR: 2.14, 95% CI: 1.23, 3.71, P = 0.006). Female patients with uncontrolled T2DM had significantly greater prevalence of anemia compared to male patients with uncontrolled T2DM. The binomial logistic regression analysis showed that age, female gender, and CKD were positively associated with anemia in the multivariate model, while in the univariate model, lack of glycemic control increases the odds of anemia by 1.74 (95% CI: 1.01, 2.99, P = 0.046). Conclusion: Anemia is commonly present among T2DM patients in Jordan and is associated with poor glycemic control especially in females. These results emphasize the necessity of including anemia screening in standard diabetes care to enable early detection and treatment of anemia and to enhance the overall care of diabetic patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study elucidates how speakers of different cultures, namely, Saudi Arabia and United States employ the speech act of requesting, drawing upon various politeness features. It conducted a qualitative analysis to offer explanations for different strategies of requests used by both groups and how they employ politeness features. The present study also conducted small statistics (frequencies and percentages) to explore the most and least common strategies that were used by participants in this study. The sample of this study included 20 Saudis and 20 Americans who were students at Southern Illinois University. The findings revealed that while Saudi participants used more direct strategies than their American counterparts, these direct strategies were characterized as positive politeness. That is, Saudi participants relied on directness feature to minimize the social distance with the addressee. However, American students were more formal than their Saudi counterparts, suggesting that they were less direct when they made requests. But this type of directness is negative as it doesn’t aim at removing social borders between interlocutors. This study indicates that Saudis tend to be more informal (and hence less indirect) than Americans when they make requests. The present study demonstrates that culture is a key social factor to determine how this speech act is employed by speakers of different cultures. It can thus be argued that directness has social implications as it plays an important role in eliminating social borders and minimizing social distance between the interlocutors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigates the impact of teaching vocabulary through semantic relations (i.e. including hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and metonyms) on the breadth and depth of EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge. A convenient sample of 50 freshman EFL learners from a state university in Jordan was recruited. The study followed an experimental approach; data were collected through pre- and post-tests over an academic term. An interview was also conducted to elicit students’ attitudes toward this vocabulary-learning strategy. The results of the ANOVA test have revealed that Jordanian EFL learners find certain difficulties concerning the identification and production of all semantic relations. They scored low in identifying semantic fields properly though they were more aware of synonyms and antonyms than others. The T-test analysis of the data revealed that the degree of awareness of the major types of semantic relations significantly differed between both tests. This implies that using this strategy has improved students' semantic awareness. Besides, students have shown positive attitudes towards using this technique asserting that it contributes to the development of their mental lexicon. The study has many pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study attempts to investigate the disagreement strategies that are used by American speakers of Arabic with a view to identifying which disagreement strategies they use in equal and non-equal status situations. In addition, it aims to see whether variables like gender and social status affect the linguistic choices and disagreement strategies that they use. The subjects of the study are 28 (14 male and 14 female) American speakers of Arabic who were learning Arabic and were residing in Jordan at the time of data collection. The researchers analyze their interactional recorded responses to a set of stimuli included in an oral (recorded) discourse completion task (ODCT) prepared for this purpose. The ODCT comprises six scenarios in which the respondent is requested to disagree with two peers, two higher-status interlocutors, and two lower-status interlocutors. The findings of the study show that the American speakers of Arabic use two main disagreement strategies, non-confrontational and confrontational disagreements, which are in turn divided into sub-strategies. Further, they employ the non-confrontational strategies slightly more than the confrontational ones, as the percentage for the former is 51% while for the latter is 49%. Interestingly, the study suggests that the topic of discussion significantly influences the choice of strategy, sometimes resulting in women being more confrontational than men, which contrasts with common perceptions reported in the literature about gender-based communication styles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of language in digital discourse for marketing has rapidly developed through mass media. This paper elucidates how advertisers employ various pragmatic strategies to persuade the recipient to act (behavior) by purchasing specific products. This study utilized different theoretical and conceptual frameworks (Theory of Reasoned Action and Aristotle's Models of Persuasion) to address the shortcomings of the social cognitive approach in studying persuasion, to investigate how language of advertisements can influence the recipient's thinking of a product from a psychological perspective. Guided by the principles of TRA, the present study argues that persuasion in advertisements is structured by three dimensions: attraction (through language features and appeals), evaluation (through beliefs, attitudes, and intention), and behavior (social acceptance or reluctance). This study revealed eight persuasion techniques employed by advertisers including demonstrating distinction, honoring commitment, expressing authority, hyperbolizing, glorification, providing proofs, expressing solidarity, and proving success. Showing distinction and Honoring commitment were the most frequently used strategies. Additionally, the study found that strategies of persuasion involved ethical, logical, and emotional appeals for their large effect on the recipient as they contribute to the recipient's positive evaluations. Appealing to reasoning (logic) is the most common one in slogans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is steadily increasing worldwide in an alarming fashion. Importantly, poor glycemic control is associated with development of various health sequalae's due to glucolipotoxicity, oxidative stress and increased inflammatory cytokines. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of glycemic control on the relative abundance of inflammatory markers in patients with controlled and uncontrolled T2DM, and to test their association with the glycemic status in diabetic patients in Jordan. An observational cross-sectional study design was used. Patients with T2DM with controlled diabetes [glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) ≤7.0%, n=110] and age-, sex- and body mass index (BMI)-matched uncontrolled diabetic patients (HbA1c >7.0%, n=105) were recruited. An antibody membrane array was used to examine the relative abundance of inflammatory cytokines and growth factors in the sera of the study subjects, followed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to confirm the results. Fasting blood glucose, serum insulin, triglyceride and homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) score were significantly elevated in the uncontrolled T2DM group (P<0.05). Antibody membrane array showed that serum epidermal growth factor (EGF) is significantly decreased in the uncontrolled T2DM group, and this was confirmed by ELISA (158.77±111.7 vs. 95.9±82.7 pg/ml, P=0.002). The binary logistic model was used to predict the likelihood of being uncontrolled diabetic based on EGF levels. After controlling for age, sex and BMI, EGF was statistically associated with diabetes control, where lower EGF levels predicted uncontrolled diabetes. Additionally, Pearson's product-moment correlation showed a statistically significant negative correlation between EGF and HbA1c (r=-0.25, P<0.0001), and a positive correlation between HOMA-IR and HbA1c, (r=0.32, P<0.0001). The current data identify a novel link between serum EGF levels and the status of HbA1c indicative of diabetic control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oxytocin produces an excitatory effect on gastric muscle through the activation of receptors present on stomach smooth muscle cells. However, the intracellular mechanisms that mediate oxytocin excitatory effects are still largely unknown. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the signaling pathways involved in oxytocin-induced contractions in gastric smooth muscle, shedding light on phospholipase C (PLC)-β1 signaling and its downstream molecules, including inositol 1,4,5- trisphosphate (IP3) and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). The contractions of gastric smooth muscle from male rats were measured in an organ bath set up in response to exogenous oxytocin 10−7 M, in the presence and absence of inhibitors of the indicated signaling molecules. Oxytocin (10−9–10−5 M) induced dose-dependent stomach smooth muscle contraction. Pre-incubation with atosiban, an oxytocin receptor inhibitor, abolished the oxytocin-induced contraction. Moreover, PLC β1 inhibitor (U73122) and IP3 inhibitor Xestospongin C inhibited oxytocin-induced muscle contraction to various degrees. Verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, inhibited oxytocin-induced contraction, and pre-incubation of the strips, with both verapamil and Xestospongin C, further inhibited the excitatory effect of oxytocin. Chelation of intracellular calcium with BAPT-AM (1,2-bis-(o-aminophenoxy) ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid) significantly inhibited the effect of oxytocin on muscle contraction. Finally, pre-incubation of the strips with the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase selective inhibitor STO-609 significantly inhibited the contraction induced by oxytocin. These results suggest that oxytocin directly stimulates its cell surface receptor to activate PLC β1, which in turn liberates IP3, which eventually elevates intracellular calcium, the prerequisite for smooth muscle contraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progesterone is a steroidal hormone that is produced from the corpus luteum of the ovaries and from the placenta. The main function of progesterone is to promote the secretory differentiation in the endometrium of the uterus and to maintain pregnancy by inhibiting uterine contractions throughout pregnancy. Progesterone performs its actions by activating the classical progesterone nuclear receptors that affect gene transcription and by the non-classical activation of cell surface membrane receptors that accounts for the rapid actions of progesterone. Besides the reproductive roles of progesterone, it exerts functions in many tissues and systems such as the nervous system, the bone, the vascular system, and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. This review will summarize the recent literature that investigated the role of progesterone in GI tract motility. Most literature indicates that progesterone exerts an inhibitory role on gut smooth muscle cells in part by elevating nitric oxide synthesis, which induces relaxation in smooth muscle. Moreover, progesterone inhibits the signaling pathways that lead to contraction such as Rho kinase inhibition. These data serve as a quick resource for the future directions of progesterone research that could lead to better understanding and more effective treatment of gender-related GI tract motility disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]