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Earlier protection methods mainly focused on using communication channels to transmit trip signals between the protective devices (PDs), with no solutions provided in the case of communication failure. Therefore, this paper introduces a dual-layer protection system to ensure secure protection against fault events in the Distribution Systems (DSs), particularly in light of communication failures. The initial layer uses the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), the estimates of the amplitude voltages, and the zero-sequence grid voltage components, functioning as a fault sensor, to formulate an adaptive algorithm based on a Finite State Machine (FSM) for the detection and isolation of faults within the grid. This layer primarily relies on communication protocols for effective coordination. A Second-Order Generalized Integrator (SOGI) expedites the derivation of the estimated variables, ensuring fast detection with minimal computational overhead. The second layer uses the behavior of the positive- and negative-sequence components of the grid voltages during fault events to locate and isolate these faults. In the event that the first layer exposes a communication failure, the second layer will automatically be activated to ensure secure protection as it operates, using the local information of the Protective devices (PDs), without the need for communication channels to transmit trip signals between the PDs. The proposed protection system has been assessed using simulations with MATLAB/Simulink and providing experimental results considering an IEEE 9-bus standard radial system. The obtained results confirm the capability of the system for identifying and isolating different types of faults, varying conditions, and modifications to the grid configuration. The results show good behavior of the initial THD-based layer, with fast time responses ranging from 6 to 8.5 ms in all the examined scenarios. In contrast, the sequence-based layer exhibits a protection time response of appro, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

En aquest treball de fi de grau, s'ha realitzat una recerca i estudi de les microxarxes i les seves modalitats, donant èmfasis en els diferents tipus de sistemes d'emmagatzematge i les diverses fonts d'energia, per tal de poder simular un cas d'una microxarxa aïllada amb una producció d'energia fotovoltaica i una bateria. En aquest cas és té en compte una petita comunitat d'habitatges i una granja, per determinar la producció energètica necessària per cobrir els seus consums. Dur a terme un estudi dels components adequats per a la instal·lació i la capacitat mínima requerida del sistema d'emmagatzematge. S’han tingut en compte tots els factors i paràmetres possibles per tal d'aconseguir de la manera més precisa la producció real que s'assoliria, fent ús de diverses pàgines i programes que han permès obtenir les dades necessàries per fer la projecció. Un cop fet l'estudi de la proposta, s'ha aprofitat un model d'una microxarxa aïllada del programa de MATLAB Simulink, per modificar-la i adaptar-la a la nostra instal·lació, i així poder comprovar com actuaria el sistema. El treball finalitza amb les conclusions extretes i un anàlisis econòmic del projecte dut a terme., En este trabajo de fin de grado, se ha realizado una investigación y estudio de las microrredes y sus modalidades, dando énfasis en los distintostipos de sistemas de almacenamiento y las diversas fuentes de energía, para poder simular un caso de una microrred aislada con una producción de energía fotovoltaica y una batería. En este caso se ha tenido en cuenta una pequeña comunidad de viviendas y una granja, para determinar la producción energética necesaria para cubrir sus consumos. Llevar a cabo un estudio de los componentes adecuados para la instalación y la capacidad mínima requerida del sistema de almacenamiento. Se han tenido en cuenta todos los factores y parámetros posibles para conseguir de la manera más precisa la producción real que se lograría, usando varias páginas y programas que han permitido obtener los datos necesarios para hacer la proyección. Una vez hecho el estudio de la propuesta, se ha aprovechado un modelo de una microrred aislada del programa de MATLAB Simulink, para modificarla y adaptarla a nuestra instalación, y así poder comprobar como actuaría el sistema. El Trabajo finaliza con las conclusiones extraídas y un análisis económico del proyecto que se ha llevado a cabo., In this final degree project, a research and study of micro-grids and their modalities has been carried out, emphasizing the different types of storage systems and the various energy sources, in order to simulate a case of an isolated micro-grid with a photovoltaic energy production and a battery. In this case, a small housing community and a farm are taken into account, to determine the energy production necessary to cover their consumption, a study has been carried out with the appropriate components for the installation and the minimum required capacity of the storage system. All possible factors and parameters have been taken into account in order to achieve in the most precise way the real production that would be achieved, using several pages and programs that allowed us to obtain the necessary data to make the projection. Once the study of the proposal has been carried out, a model of a micro-grid isolated from MATLAB Simulink has been used, to modify it and adapt it to our installation, and thus be able to verify how the system would act. The work ends with the conclusions drawn and an economic analysis of the project carried out.

This work presents a literature review about control techniques for parallel connected power inverters under microgrid applications. Some control strategies, based on droop control for parallel inverters of distributed generation units in an ac distribution system will be presented in this work. Finally, an important method called Virtual Oscillating Control (VOC) is suggested for connecting voltage source inverters. Inverters are able to work in parallel with a constant-voltage constant frequency system, as well as with other inverters and also in standalone operation. The different power sources can share the load also under unbalanced conditions. Throughout this work several simulation results are presented in order to demonstrate the behaviour the behavior of the different control strategies tested., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The integration of Distributed Generators (DGs) into distribution systems (DSs) leads to more reliable and efficient power delivery for customers. However, the possibility of bi-directional power flow creates new technical problems for protection schemes. This poses a threat to conventional strategies because the relay settings have to be adjusted depending on the network topology and operational mode. As a solution, it is important to develop novel fault protection techniques to ensure reliable protection and avoid unnecessary tripping. In this regard, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) can be used as a key parameter for evaluating the grid’s waveform quality during fault events. This paper presents a comparison between two DS protection strategies that employ THD levels, estimated amplitude voltages, and zero-sequence components as instantaneous indicators during the faults that function as a kind of fault sensor to detect, identify, and isolate faults. The first method uses a Multiple Second Order Generalized Integrator (MSOGI) to obtain the estimated variables, whereas the second method uses a single SOGI for the same purpose (SOGI-THD). Both methods rely on communication lines between protective devices (PDs) to facilitate coordinated protection. The effectiveness of these methods is assessed by using simulations in MATLAB/Simulink considering various factors such as different types of faults and DG penetrations, different fault resistances and fault locations in the proposed network. Moreover, the performance of these methods is compared with conventional overcurrent and differential protections. The results show that the SOGI-THD method is highly effective in detecting and isolating faults with a time interval of 6–8.5 ms using only three SOGIs while requiring only 447 processor cycles for execution. In comparison to other protection methods, the SOGI-THD method exhibits a faster response time and a lower computational burden. Furthermore, the SOGI-THD method is, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The Second Order Generalized Integrator–Frequency Locked Loop (SOGI-FLL) is a widely used and popular adaptive filter for estimating grid voltage parameters with minimal computational burden. However, it is vulnerable to voltage sag and swell faults, especially voltage sags that can significantly distort the estimated frequency. In this paper, we propose an error-and-hold algorithm for the SOGI-FLL that can quickly detect faults and hold the estimated frequency during these perturbations. The algorithm uses the absolute value of the SOGI's error, its average, and the average of the FLL's estimated frequency to operate. It reduces induced errors in the SOGI-FLL's quadrature outputs, improves the FLL's transient response, holds the estimated frequency, and restores the phase to its previous value before the fault. The proposed algorithm is a straightforward and low computational burden algorithm that can be executed on a low-cost processor. We validate the effectiveness of the proposed error-and-hold algorithm through simulations and experimental results., Peer Reviewed, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::7 - Energia Assequible i No Contaminant, Postprint (published version)

Best Paper Award in the 2023 International Conference on Predictive Control of Electrical Drives and Power Electronics (PRECEDE 2023), The increasing development of 5G technology has focused attention on the energy consumption of its base stations. As a result, it is crucial to establish energy-efficient 5G networks and reduce the operating costs associated with 5G base stations. In this paper, a multi-time-scale energy management strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) is proposed to achieve this aim. Firstly, a 5G base station model that takes into account several factors is established, including backup energy storage, inverter air conditioning scheduling potential, photovoltaic output fluctuations, load, and temperature. Secondly, a day-ahead optimal economic dispatch model for minimizing operational costs is developed. Thirdly, an intraday rolling optimization strategy based on MPC to dynamically adjust the day-ahead operation scheme is proposed. Finally, comprehensive case studies are carried out, which indicate that the proposed strategy can effectively improve the robustness and economy of the system., Peer Reviewed, Award-winning, Postprint (published version)

This Guide was designed based on the principles and values contained in the Institutional Development Plan 2022-2030 of the Universidad Autónoma deNuevo León (https://www.uanl.mx/pdi-2022-2030/) and the Code of Ethics of theUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México (http://www.ifc.unam.mx/pdf/codigo-etica-unam.pdf), the latter with some adaptive modifications. It was put into practice by ten teams of undergraduate students from the UANL Faculty of Social Work and Human Development. The result of its application, shown throughout this document, corresponds to the work carried out by one of the participating teams, taken at random, constituting a proposal for reflection on university ethical behavior, from the student perspective.Keywords: Code of ethics, Values; Principles, Standards., La presente Guía fue diseñada a partir de los principios y valores contenidos en el Plan de Desarrollo Institucional 2022 –2030 de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (https://www.uanl.mx/pdi-2022-2030/) y el Código de Ética de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (http://www.ifc.unam.mx/pdf/codigo-etica-unam.pdf), este último con algunas modificaciones adaptativas. Fue puesta en práctica por diez equipos de estudiantes de licenciatura de la Facultad de Trabajo Social y Desarrollo Humano de la UANL. El resultado de su aplicación, mostrado a lo largo del presente documento, corresponde al trabajo realizado por uno de los equipos participantes, tomado al azar, constituyéndose en una propuesta para la reflexión sobre el comportamiento ético universitario, desde la perspectiva estudiantil.

El alternador es una máquina capaz de convertir energía mecánica en energía eléctrica, debido a estas propiedades en este documento se realiza un estudio sobre la energía que es capaz de producir un alternador gracias al movimiento del viento, para ello, se realiza la extrapolación de las características de un aerogenerador comercial con datos reales pero aplicados al alternador y a partir de los resultados obtenidos, se presenta un análisis de las aplicaciones más viables y favorables que podrían llevarse a cabo, como la electrificación de una finca aislada del núcleo urbano o el bombeo de agua de un pozo, entre otras, todo ello utilizando alternadores procedentes de centros de tratamiento autorizados.(desguace). Dada la importancia del uso de energías limpias en la actualidad y el impacto ambiental que generan los residuos, este documento también incluye información sobre la trayectoria de la energía eólica en el mundo, en Europa y en España hasta la actualidad, la importancia que tiene en comparación a otras fuentes de energía y la previsión de futuro, además de datos como el número de alternadores que se pueden utilizar en un periodo de tiempo para contribuir a la sostenibilidad y al medio ambiente., L'alternador és una màquina capaç de convertir energia mecànica en energia elèctrica, a causa d'aquestes propietats en aquest document es realitza un estudi sobre l'energia que és capaç de produir un alternador gràcies al moviment del vent, per a això, es realitza l'extrapolació de les característiques d'un aerogenerador comercial amb dades reals, però aplicades a l'alternador i a partir dels resultats obtinguts, es presenta una anàlisi de les aplicacions més viables i favorables que podrien dur-se a terme, com l'electrificació d'una finca aïllada del nucli urbà o el bombament d'aigua d'un pou, entre altres, tot això utilitzant alternadors procedents de centres de tractament autoritzats.(desballestament). Donada la importància de l'ús d'energies netes en l'actualitat i l'impacte ambiental que generen els residus, aquest document també inclou informació sobre la trajectòria de l'energia eòlica en el món, a Europa i a Espanya fins a l'actualitat, la importància que té en comparació a altres fonts d'energia i la previsió de futur, a més de dades com el nombre d'alternadors que es poden fer servir en un període de temps per a contribuir a la sostenibilitat i al medi ambient., The alternator is a machine capable of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, due to these properties in this document a study is made on the energy that is capable of producing an alternator thanks to the movement of the wind, for this, the extrapolation of the characteristics of a commercial wind turbine is made with real data but applied to the alternator and from the results obtained, an analysis of the most viable and favorable applications that could be carried out is presented, such as the electrification of a farm isolated from the urban nucleus or the pumping of water from a well, among others, all this using alternators from authorized treatment centers. (scrapping). Given the importance of the use of clean energy nowadays and the environmental impact generated by waste, this document also includes information on the trajectory of wind energy in the world, in Europe and in Spain to date, its importance compared to other energy sources and the future forecast, as well as data such as the number of alternators that can be used in a period of time to contribute to sustainability and the environment.

Pulsed power load (PPL) is a special load type in shipboard microgrids (SMGs), which consists of the generation module, energy storage system, and various types of loads. Having a reliable power supply to shipboard loads is a challenge as the SMG operates in islanded mode in most cases. Particularly, the PPLs require high transient power transfer with fast dynamics and strong robustness. Conventional solution to supply for the PPL is based on proportional-integral (PI) control, which can be used by linearizing the system around the equilibrium operation point. However, for a pulsed power supply (PPS) system, the load demand drastically changes in a short time, usually in millisecond level, making the operating point changes when the pulsed power is triggered or terminated. To supply the PPL with fast dynamics and robustness, an improved PPS control method is presented in this paper. By adopting a nonlinear sliding mode control (SMC) method, fast voltage regulation and robust pulse power tracking can be achieved. In the PPS, the PPL power demand is divided into two terms: one is the average power that is supplied by the SMG and the other is the fast pulsed power that is supplied by the storage capacitor. The size and cost of the storage capacitor are reduced as it is intentionally driven to a deep discharge. The PPS system configuration and coordination principle, SMC controllers, and sizing of passive elements in the PPS are analyzed in detail. The effectiveness of the presented PPS is verified by simulation results., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Les cases modulars cada dia tenen un paper més important en el sector de la construcció per la seva senzillesa de muntatge i per l’abaratiment de costos. Aquestes possibilitats, conjuntament amb la implementació de sistemes renovables per augmentar l’estalvi energètic, conformen la possibilitat de dissenyar un habitatge amb les necessitats de cada persona. En aquest treball s’estableixen els condicionants tècnics que han de complir les instal·lacions de sanejament, fontaneria, electricitat, ventilació i climatització de l’habitatge, i descriure els elements que la composen tenint sempre en compte la utilització de sistemes renovables, eficients i reutilitzables. El disseny seguit en aquest projecte segueix un model bioclimàtic per potenciar els sistemes passius de la ubicació. Els sistemes i tecnologies aplicades han estat estrictament regulades i calculades per no encarir el pressupost del projecte i fer d’aquest treball, un projecte de futur. Per tant, es tracta d’un projecte executiu real, de creació i disseny propi, sense data d’inici d’obra per falta d’experiència en el sector de projectes d’enginyeria., Las casas modulares cada día tienen un papel más importante en el sector de la construcción por su sencillez de montaje y por el abaratamiento de costes. Estas posibilidades, conjuntamente con la implementación de sistemas renovables para aumentar el ahorro energético, conforman la posibilidad de diseñar una vivienda con las necesidades de cada persona. En este trabajo se establecen los condicionantes técnicos que tienen que cumplir las instalaciones de saneamiento, fontanería, electricidad, ventilación y climatización de la vivienda, y describir los elementos que la componen teniendo siempre en cuenta la utilización de sistemas renovables, eficientes y reutilizables. El diseño seguido en este proyecto sigue un modelo bioclimático para potenciar los sistemas pasivos de la ubicación. Los sistemas y tecnologías aplicadas han sido estrictamente reguladas y calculadas por no encarecer el presupuesto del proyecto y hacer de este trabajo, un proyecto de futuro. Por lo tanto, se trata de un proyecto ejecutivo real, de creación y diseño propio, sin fecha de inicio de obra por falta de experiencia en el sector de proyectos de ingeniería., Modular houses are playing an increasingly important role in the construction sector due to their simplicity of assembly and lowest costs. These possibilities, together with the implementation of renewable systems to increase energy savings, make it possible to design a house according to the neecessities of each person. This work establishes the technical conditions that the sanitation, plumbing, electricity, ventilation and air conditioning installations of the house must meet and describes the elements that make it up, always taking into account the use of renewable, efficient and reusable systems. The design of this project follows a bioclimatic model to highlight the passive systems of the location. The systems and technologies applied have been strictly regulated and calculated so as not to increase the project's budget and to make this project a reality in the future. Therefore, this is a real executive project, of our own creation and design, with no start date for the work due to a lack of experience in the engineering project sector.

Aquest treball anomenat “Disseny d'un prototip de carregador per a bateries” apareix a conseqüència dels problemes de contaminació que trobem a la societat actual. La necessitat que ens trobem com a societat actualment és la de reduir els nivells de CO₂ emesos a l'atmosfera per tal de frenar el canvi climàtic. Aquesta necessitat ha suposat un augment de la demanda de bateries elèctriques per al sector del transport i per al sector de la generació d'energia. En aquest projecte es durà a terme l'estudi de com dissenyar un carregador de bateries, i també es farà la seva implementació per poder comprovar que el nostre disseny és correcte. També es durà a terme l'estudi de les corbes dels cicles de càrrega i descàrrega de les bateries emprades. Finalment, es fa un estudi de l'impacte ambiental que provoca la producció d'aquestes, i s'exposen maneres de com millorar aquest impacte, acord amb el treball. La finalitat d'aquest projecte és crear un prototip de càrrega de bateries per poder instaurar el fet d'utilitzar piles recarregables a la nostra vida quotidiana, disminuint així el nombre d'aquestes., Este trabajo llamado “Diseño de un prototipo de cargador para baterías” aparece a consecuencia de los problemas de contaminación que encontramos a la sociedad actual. La necesidad que nos encontramos como sociedad actualmente es la de reducir los niveles de CO₂ emitidos a la atmósfera para frenar el cambio climático. Esta necesidad ha supuesto un aumento de la demanda de baterías eléctricas para el sector del transporte y para el sector de la generación de energía. En este proyecto se llevará a cabo el estudio de cómo diseñar un cargador de baterías, y también se hará su implementación para poder comprobar que nuestro diseño es correcto. También se llevará a cabo el estudio de las curvas de los ciclos de carga y descarga de las baterías empleadas. Finalmente, se hace un estudio del impacto ambiental que provoca la producción de estas, y se exponen maneras de cómo mejorar este impacto, acuerdo con el trabajo. La finalidad de este proyecto es crear un prototipo de carga de baterías para poder instaurar el hecho de utilizar pilas recargables en nuestra vida cotidiana, disminuyendo así el número de estas., This work called "Design of a prototype battery charger" appears as a result of the pollution problems we find in today's society. The need we find as a society today is to reduce the CO2 levels emitted into the atmosphere in order to curb climate change. This requirement has meant an increase in demand for electric batteries for the transport sector and for the energy generation sector. This project will carry out the study of how to design a battery charger, and its implementation will also be done to check that our design is correct. The study of the curves of the charge and discharge cycles of the batteries used will also be carried out. Finally, a study is carried out on the environmental impact caused by the production of these, and outlines ways of improving this impact, according to the work. The purpose of this project is to create a prototype battery charge to install the use of rechargeable batteries in our daily lives, thus decreasing the number of batteries.

The rapid growth of the distributed generators (DGs) integration into the distribution systems (DSs) creates new technical issues; conventional relay settings need to be updated depending on the network topology and operational mode as fault protection is a major challenge. This emphasizes the need for new fault protection methods to ensure secure protection and prevent undesirable tripping. Total harmonic distortion (THD) is an important indicator for assessing the quality of the grid. Here, a new protection system based on the THD of the grid voltages is proposed to address fault events in the electrical distribution network. The proposed protection system combines the THD with the estimates of the amplitude voltages and the zero-sequence component for defining an algorithm based on a finite state machine (FSM) for the detection, identification, and isolation of faults in the grid. The algorithm employs communication lines between all the protective devices (PDs) of the system to transmit tripping signals, allowing PDs to be coordinated. A second order generalized integrator (SOGI) and multiple SOGI (MSOGI) are used to obtain the THDs, estimated amplitude voltages, and zero-sequence component, which allows for fast detection with a low computational burden. The protection algorithm performance is evaluated through simulations in MATLAB/Simulink and a comparative study is developed between the proposed protection method and a differential relay (DR) protection system. The proposed method shows its capability to detect and isolate faults during different fault types with different fault resistances in different locations in the proposed network. In all the tested scenarios, the detection time of the faults has been between 7–10 ms. Moreover, this method gave the best solution as it has a higher accuracy and faster response than the conventional DR protection system., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

En aquest treball final de grau s’estudia el cas de l’ajuntament de Collbató, analitzant els seus consums elèctrics i les possibilitats de reduir aquest consum utilitzant instal·lacions fotovoltaiques. Per fer-ho s’analitzaran 5 recintes municipals diferents en els quals es duran a terme instal·lacions en les seves cobertes. Per cada centre es realitzarà un estudi de les zones optimes per la col·locació dels panells i es definiran les solucions proposades, indicant la orientació, inclinació, quantitat de mòduls i també els inversors necessaris i les seves distribucions. Amb aquestes dades es realitzaran les simulacions de les instal·lacions emprant el PVsyst. A partir d’aquestes simulacions es podran treure les dades de generació i fer els estudis de viabilitat econòmica i l’impacte ambiental. Pel que fa al estudi econòmic, s’analitzarà el cost de les instal·lacions i l’estalvi degut a la producció d’energia i la seva amortització., En este trabajo final de grado se baraja el caso del ayuntamiento de Collbató, analizando sus consumos eléctricos y las posibilidades de reducir este consumo utilizando instalaciones fotovoltaicas. Para ello se analizarán 5 recintos municipales distintos en los que se llevarán a cabo instalaciones en sus cubiertas. Por cada centro se realizará un estudio de las zonas óptimas para la colocación de los paneles y se definirán las soluciones propuestas, indicando la orientación, inclinación, cantidad de módulos y también los inversores necesarios y sus distribuciones. Con estos datos se realizarán las simulaciones de las instalaciones utilizando el PVsyst. A partir de estas simulaciones se podrán sacar los datos de generación y realizar los estudios de viabilidad económica y el impacto ambiental. Por lo que respecta al estudio económico, se analizará el coste de las instalaciones y el ahorro debido a la producción de energía y su amortización., In this final degree project, the case of the Collbató town hall is considered, analyzing its electricity consumption and the possibilities of reducing this consumption using photovoltaic installations. For this, 5 different municipal precincts will be analyzed in which installations will be carried out on their roofs. For each center, a study will be carried out on the optimal areas for the placement of the panels and the proposed solutions will be defined, indicating the orientation, inclination, number of modules and the necessary inverters and their distributions. With these data, the simulations of the facilities will be carried out using the PVsyst. Based on these simulations, generation data can be obtained, and economic feasibility and environmental impact studies can be carried out. Regarding the economic study, the cost of the facilities and the savings due to the production of energy and its amortization will be analyzed.