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The authors examined the relationship among psychosocial vulnerability (stress) and resilience (adaptive potential) factors and three outcome measures, self-reported physical symptoms, positive and negative affect, and natural killer cell activity in 39 male and female older adults residing in a retirement community (mean age = 73.5). Although life events were directly related to physical health symptoms, both perceived stress and adaptive potential were significantly associated with positive and negative affect. There was a tendency for adaptive potential to buffer the effect of perceived stress on negative affect. However, natural killer cell activity was not significantly related to any psychosocial vulnerability and resilience factors in this small sample. Implications for studying the effects of stress on health in older adults are discussed.

Stress, even extremely traumatic stress, may pose both risks and benefits. Although combat can have lifelong negative consequences, the perception of positive benefits from military experience can mitigate the negative effects of combat on mental health. However, little research has examined the impact of trauma earlier in life on the development of positive adaptation, such as wisdom, later in life. The authors examined whether combat exposure and the perception of benefits from military experience, assessed in 1990, were associated with greater wisdom in later life, assessed in 2001 in 615 men from the Normative Aging Study men (mean age 74 years, SD = 6.8 years). A quadrilinear relationship between combat exposure and wisdom was found. Moderate levels of combat were associated with higher levels of wisdom. The perception of benefits and coping predicted wisdom. Thus, how one appraises and copes with problems may be more important in the prediction of positive adaptation than the simple occurrence of stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The past three decades have seen an explosion of research into how people cope with stress; over 33,000 articles have been published. Despite the initial theoretical justification for research into coping - that it would moderate the adverse effects of stress on physical health - relatively few published studies have actually examined this hypothesis. This special issue is an attempt to redirect researchers' attention to focusing on this issue. The results re-emphasize that there is no 'magic bullet' in coping research; rather, the effects of coping are highly complex, and vary as a function of the type of stressor as well as the individual's characteristics. More complex theoretical and analytical models are needed to fully understand the impact of coping on physical health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metabolic syndrome is a complex construct with interrelated factors of obesity, blood pressure, lipids, and glucose. It is a risk factor for a number of chronic diseases in late life. This study tested a model in which the relationship between stress and the metabolic syndrome was mediated by appraisal, coping, and affect. Data were collected from 518 male participants in the Normative Aging Study (X(age) = 68.17 years). The model was partially confirmed. Relationships among stress, appraisal, coping, and affect were valenced along positive and negative pathways. However, affect was not directly related to the metabolic syndrome. The metabolic syndrome was related to positive coping as operationalized by self-regulatory strategies. The results of this study suggest that the influence of coping on physical health may occur through emotional regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the interplay between three explanatory hypotheses for why older adults appear to rate their problems as less stressful than do younger adults: age-related differences in personality, in types of problems, and in the appraisal process-specifically, the number of primary stress appraisals. A sample of 1,054 men from the Normative Aging Study (mean age = 65.02; range = 45 to 92) were interviewed about a problem in the past week. Personality did not mediate the effect of age on stress ratings. While general hassles and health problems both increased with age, they had opposite influences on stress ratings. Accounting for covariates, older men reported fewer appraisals, and the number of appraisals mediated the association between age and stress ratings. We found no moderating effects of problem type on these processes. Thus, lower stress ratings for everyday problems in later life may result from developmental changes in primary appraisal processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-transcendence has been hypothesized to be a critical component of wisdom (Curnow, 1999) and adaptation in later life (Tornstam, 1994). It reflects a decreasing reliance on externals for definition of the self, increasing interiority and spirituality, and a greater sense of connectedness with past and future generations. The Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory was administered to 351 individuals along with the NEO-FFI Personality Scale (McCrae & Costa, 1989). A principal axis factor analysis identified two factors: self-transcendence and alienation. The relationships between self-transcendence and neuroticism, openness to experience, extraversion, and agreeableness were significant, although modest, suggesting that self-transcendence cannot be accounted for in terms of positive personality traits alone. As expected, a multiple regression analysis indicated that self-transcendence was negatively related to neuroticism and positively related to meditation practice. The present study appears to lend support to the construct of self-transcendence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As people live longer, the population of older adults in need of support continues to expand relative to the available workforce of caregivers, necessitating new solutions to supplement caregiver availability for the physical, cognitive, and social needs of older adults. Robotics and automation present strong possible solutions. Past solutions have typically supported short-term rehabilitation and aging in place, yet many older adults live in skilled nursing facilities (SNFs), a setting reached by relatively little research to date. In this paper, we examine the unique needs of staff and residents at SNFs, after which we begin an iterative design process of robot-mediated wellness activities for the SNF space. We worked closely with domain experts in exercise science and physical therapy for older adults and a local SNF to design and test a series of robot-mediated activity prototypes with residents, visitors, and staff. We found that while both residents and staff highly value physical activity, there are nuanced challenges associated with supporting resident activity (one important element of overall wellbeing). As a result, we considered and tested a wide range of intervention options from usual approaches (e.g., mirroring movements) to creative approaches (e.g., social engagement via lewd humor). Our final design insights can inform practitioners who wish to use robots to support resident wellbeing in SNFs., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Preston, Shippy, Aldwin and Fitter.)

Objectives: Despite higher physical vulnerability to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), older adults reported less psychological stress than younger and midlife adults during the pandemic. However, little is known about age differences in stress within later life, and most COVID-19 studies have been cross-sectional. We examined weekly hassles exposure and severity trajectories and whether these trajectories differed by age, resilience factors (higher trait resilience and education), and vulnerability factors (identifying as a woman, being a person of color, and having chronic health conditions)., Methods: Community-dwelling adults aged 50+ in Oregon (Mage = 71.1, standard deviation = 7.3; 74% women, 89% non-Hispanic White) completed weekly online surveys across 8 weeks (April 28-June 22, 2020) during the COVID-19 stay-at-home mandate. A 2-part model estimated how age, resilience, and vulnerability factors predicted weekly odds of any hassle exposure and level of severity., Results: Across time, hassles exposure decreased and the rate of severity declined, but these patterns differed by age and other demographics. The old-old (estimated at age 78) remained stable in odds of any exposure, whereas the young-old (estimated at age 64) evidenced a J-shaped curve; age did not moderate the severity slopes. Furthermore, both resilience factors were associated with exposure trajectories, whereas vulnerability factors (race/ethnicity and chronic illness) were associated with levels of hassles severity., Discussion: There were age differences in patterns of hassles during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, resilience and vulnerability factors also showed complex patterns, underscoring the need for future studies to focus on age differences in well-being in later life., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: Prospective associations between coping and all-cause mortality risk are understudied, particularly among nonmedical samples. We assessed independent and joint associations of multiple components of the transactional stress and coping model with all-cause mortality in a cohort of community-dwelling men. We were particularly interested in how coping effort related to mortality., Methods: Participants included 743 men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study who completed 1+ stress and coping assessment in 1993-2002 (baseline age: M = 68.4, standard deviation [SD] = 7.1) and had mortality follow-up through 2020. The Brief California Coping Inventory assessed coping with a past-month stressor. Cox regression evaluated associations of problem stressfulness, coping strategies, total coping effort, and coping efficiency with all-cause mortality risk., Results: Over a mean follow-up of 16.7 years (SD = 7.1), 473 (64%) men died. Problem stressfulness was not associated with mortality risk (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.07, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.98-1.17), adjusted for demographics and health conditions. When examining coping via specific strategies, only social coping was associated with higher mortality risk (HR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.05-1.26) after Bonferroni correction. Total coping effort was associated with 14% greater risk of all-cause mortality (95% CI: 1.04-1.26), independent of problem stressfulness, demographics, and health conditions. Coping efficiency, a benefit-cost ratio of coping efficacy to total coping effort, was not associated with mortality risk in adjusted models., Discussion: Total coping effort may be an important indicator for longevity among aging men, above and beyond problem stressfulness and specific coping strategies, which have been the foci in prior research., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America 2024.)

The COVID-19 pandemic has been observed to negatively affect older adults' psychological health compared with prepandemic levels. However, older adults' coping efficacy may differ depending on their age, and little is known about effects of fluctuations in pandemic severity. Two longitudinal studies tested the hypothesis that pandemic severity would affect psychological health and be moderated by age. In Study 1 ( N = 111), older adults (aged 62-96) were assessed semiannually before and after the first United States COVID-19 case over up to 10 years. Depressive symptoms and stress, but not cognitive difficulties, were higher during COVID-19; pandemic severity had little effect. Estimated increases were smaller for a 65-year-old than for an 85-year-old. In Study 2 ( N = 221), older adults (aged 51-95) were assessed weekly over up to 8 weeks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Higher national pandemic severity was associated with more cognitive difficulties, more depressive symptoms, and more stress. In an opposite pattern from Study 1, estimated increases were larger for a 65-year-old than for an 85-year-old. Old-old adults might be most susceptible to long-term psychological effects of the pandemic era, as in Study 1, but more resilient to short-term effects, as in Study 2. Coping strategies associated with increasing age may be less efficacious for more chronic and severe problems. Conversely, the same coping strategies may be more efficacious for shorter, less severe problems. Differentiating between reactivity to longer term and shorter term pandemic stressors can identify the most resilient or vulnerable ages within older adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective: South Korea had the second largest contingent of soldiers in the Vietnam War, but little is known about their adaptation, especially in later life. Previous work in a different sample found very high rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; 41%) among Korean Vietnam veterans (KVVs; Kang, Kim, & Lee, 2014), compared to 19-31% for American Vietnam veterans. We explored possible reasons for this high rate of PTSD, as well as anxiety and depressive symptoms, utilizing both vulnerability factors (e.g., war stressors) and protective factors (optimism, unit cohesion, and homecoming experiences)., Method: The sample included 367 male KVVs surveyed by mail ( M age = 72, SD = 2.66). Using hierarchical regressions controlling for demographics, we examined the relative contributions of different types of war stressors and then the protective factors., Results: Combat exposure was significantly associated with the three types of negative psychological symptoms, but their associations became nonsignificant when "subjective" war stressors (malevolent environments, perceived threat, and moral injury) were added. In the final models, malevolent environments were the strongest predictor for all three outcomes. In addition, moral injury was independently associated with PTSD symptoms, while perceived threat was marginally associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms. Among psychosocial factors, only optimism was negatively associated with the mental health outcomes., Conclusion: KVVs had very high rates of combat exposure, but malevolent environments played a more important role in their mental health in later life. These findings suggest the importance of considering adverse environmental factors in understanding PTSD in future studies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives: We examined sources of vulnerability and resilience among older adults early in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic., Methods: We surveyed 235 respondents, 51-95 years old (M = 71.35; SD = 7.39; 74% female), including 2 open-ended questions concerning COVID-19-related difficulties and positive experiences during the past week. Using inductive coding, we found 9 final codes for difficulties and 12 for positives and grouped them into socioecological levels: personal, interpersonal, and societal., Results: Difficulties were reported by 94% of the sample, while 63% described positives. Difficulties and positive responses were made at all socioecological levels and illustrated a dialectic between personal-level constraints and opportunities, interpersonal-level social isolation and integration, and societal-level outrage, sorrow, and social optimism., Discussion: Respondents described sources of vulnerabilities and resilience that supported a socioecological approach to understand resilience during this pandemic. A notable example was resilience derived from witnessing and contributing to the community and social solidarity, highlighting the potential of older adults as resources to their communities during the global pandemic., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The current study examined correlates of life satisfaction among Korean Vietnam War Veterans. The sample included 450 male Veterans from the Korean Vietnam War Veterans Study, surveyed by mail in 2013 ( Mean age  = 67.4 years old, SD  = 3.0). A hierarchical analysis was conducted by entering four blocks of variables: first demographic factors, and then pre-military service, military service, and post-military service variables. Each successive regression analysis showed a significant additional contribution to the variance in life satisfaction. In the final model, Korean Veterans had higher life satisfaction when they were married, had higher monthly income and poorer childhood family environment, appraised their military service in a positive light, and had less stressors after homecoming and better perceived physical health. However, combat exposure and social support after homecoming were not independently associated with life satisfaction in the final model. These results imply that both pre- and post-military service factors, as well as cognitive appraisals of military service, should be considered in understanding the subjective well-being of Korean Vietnam War Veterans in later life., Competing Interests: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s)., (© 2022 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.)

Relatively little is known about South Korean Vietnam War veterans, despite their being the second largest contingent of troops during the Vietnam War. Earlier research found elevated levels (39%) of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in this older population, due to high exposure to combat and malevolent environments (Lee et al., 2020). The present study investigated classes of vulnerability and resilience among older South Korean Vietnam War veterans, using a latent profile analysis (LPA) on PTSD symptoms, late onset stress symptomology (LOSS), and mental well-being (MWB). The sample consisted of 367 older male veterans from South Korea ( M age = 72, SD = 2.66) who completed surveys. The LPA yielded five classes. The largest (38%) was Average (average PTSD, LOSS, and MWB levels), and the second largest (31%) was characterized by Moderate Distress (moderately high PTSD and LOSS, average MWB). A small group (13%) reported Low Affect (low PTSD, LOSS, and MWB levels), and 7% expressed Severe Distress (high LOSS and PTSD levels, average MWB). Only a small percentage (12%) were characterized by Resilience (low PTSD, average LOSS, high MWB). Optimism, positive appraisals of military service, and social support from family, significant others, friends, and military peers were highest among veterans in the Resilience class. To our knowledge, this is the first study of resilience among East Asian military veterans, and more research is needed on how resilience can be improved. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

This article views adult development through the lens of daily life experiences and recent historical changes in these experiences. In particular, it examines whether theories that postulate general linear increases in well-being throughout adulthood still hold during times of less prosperity and more uncertainty. Descriptive analyses of the National Study of Daily Experiences chart show how stress in the daily lives of Americans may have changed from the 1990s (N = 1,499) to the 2010s (N = 782). Results revealed that adults in the 2010s reported experiencing stressors on 2% more days than in the 1990s, which translates to an additional week of stressors across a year. Participants in the 2010s also reported that stressors were more severe and posed more risks to future plans and finances and that they experienced more distress. These historical changes were particularly pronounced among middle-aged adults (e.g., proportion of stressor days increased by 19%, and perceived risks to finances and to future plans rose by 61% and 52%, respectively). As a consequence, age-related linear increases in well-being observed from young adulthood to midlife in the 1990s were no longer observed in the 2010s. If further studies continue to replicate our findings, traditional theories of adult well-being that were developed and empirically tested during times of relative economic prosperity may need to be reevaluated in light of the changes in middle adulthood currently observed in this historic period. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Adverse early experiences have been associated with higher mortality risk, but evidence varies by type of experiences, and relatively little is known about the role of favorable early experiences on health in later life. This study evaluated the independent contributions to longevity of favorable and unfavorable early experiences, including psychosocial stressors, childhood socioeconomic status (SES), and close relationships. We also examined 4 midlife psychosocial factors as vulnerability and resilience pathways potentially mediating these associations. The sample included 1,042 men from the VA Normative Aging Study. Early experiences were assessed retrospectively in 1961-1970 and 1995. Midlife psychosocial factors were measured in 1985-1991 and included stressful life events (SLEs), negative affect, life satisfaction, and optimism. Mortality was assessed through 2016. In multiple mediator structural equation models, which account for the overlap among pathways, higher number of SLEs in midlife mediated the association of having more childhood psychosocial stressors to reduced longevity, supporting stress continuity as a vulnerability pathway. Higher optimism in midlife also mediated the association of higher childhood SES to greater longevity. In single mediator models, higher life satisfaction in midlife transmitted the benefits of higher childhood SES and presence of close relationships onto longevity. Higher optimism also mediated the association of fewer childhood psychosocial stressors to longevity. However, these indirect effects were attenuated when accounting for shared variance among mediators, suggesting overlapping pathways. Findings offer novel evidence on unique and shared pathways linking specific dimensions of early experiences to longevity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Cross-sectional studies have shown contradictory results concerning the impact of combat exposure on mental health in later life. We examined whether combat exposure influences trajectories of mental health symptoms in older male veterans using longitudinal data collected from 1985 to 1991 in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study ( N = 1,105, age range = 40-86 years in 1985). Noncombat veterans showed little systematic change in depressive and anxiety symptoms with age, whereas combat veterans showed U-shaped nonlinear changes, with higher levels in midlife decreasing until the mid-60s and then increasing again in the 70s and 80s. These findings support the notion that military service, and especially combat exposure, is a hidden variable in aging research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives: This study examined the development of wisdom within the context of difficult life events (DLEs), and the importance of individuals and their social environments in this process of growth. Social support has long been studied in adulthood, yet less is known about the ways social transactions can promote wisdom., Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with men (n = 14) and women (n = 36), ages 56-91 years (M = 71.71; SD = 8.8) who described a DLE and how they coped with it. The analysis was guided by constructivist grounded theory., Results: DLEs included those from childhood through later life. When personal meaning was disrupted by adversity, the social environment played a key role in facilitating new perspectives that corresponded with aspects of wisdom: self-knowledge, compassion, comfort with uncertainty, and accepting complexity., Discussion: Wisdom is often studied as an individual characteristic, but this study highlighted the relevance of a social ecological perspective to understanding how wisdom development is also facilitated through social transactions.

As many health disparities in American minority communities (AMCs) are stress-related, there has been an increased interest in the development of mindfulness programs as potential stress reduction measures in these communities. However, the bulk of the extant literature on mindfulness research and mindfulness interventions is based upon experiences with the larger White community. The intent of this commentary is to share a framework that includes key cultural considerations for conducting research and developing culturally-salient mindfulness programs with AMCs. We build on our experiences and the experiences of other researchers who have explored mindfulness in African and Native American communities; in particular, we examine issues around community outreach with an emphatic gesture toward emphasizing protection of AMCs and their participants. Discussed are considerations with respect to attitudinal foundations in mindfulness-based research and program development with these communities. However, the overall message of this paper is not to provide a "to-do" list of research steps, but to rather, encourage researchers to turn inward and consider the development of skillful characteristics that will increase the likelihood of a successful research venture while also protecting the cultural traditions of the AMC of interest.

Objective: Combat exposure can have long-term negative effects in later life; although aspects of service may be appraised positively, the long-term positive effects of combat on well-being in later life is largely unknown., Method: The sample included 1,006 male veterans from the VA Normative Aging Study, surveyed by mail in 1986, 1990, and 1991 (Mage = 65.5 years, SD = 7.3). They reported on their combat exposure, desirable appraisals of military service, unit cohesion, dispositional optimism, self-rated health, and psychological well-being (PWB), as well as age, military rank, and education. Perceived positive aspects (PPA) of military service was postulated to mediate the effects of combat exposure on PWB. Structural equation modeling was used to examine both mediating and moderating effects., Results: Age, combat exposure, and optimism had independent effects on PPA, but optimism did not moderate the effect of combat exposure on PPA. Combat exposure had only indirect effects on PWB through PPA, controlling for the direct effects of optimism. Education had no direct effects on the positive outcomes but did have indirect effects through optimism., Conclusion: Combat exposure contributes to positive well-being in later life, indirectly through positive appraisals, and this effect was independent of optimism. Thus, these results support the idea that combat veterans should be encouraged to focus on positive aspects of military service, which may serve as resilience resources to facilitate optimal aging. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

We examined whether longitudinal patterns of hassles and uplifts trajectories predicted mortality, using a sample of 1315 men from the VA Normative Aging Study (mean age = 65.31, SD = 7.6). In prior work, we identified different trajectory classes of hassles and uplifts exposure and intensity scores over a period of 16 years. In this study, we used the probabilities of these exposure and intensity class memberships to examine their ability to predict mortality. Men with higher probabilities of high hassle intensity trajectory class and high uplift intensity class had higher mortality risks. In a model combining the probabilities of hassle and uplift intensities, the probability of high intensity hassle class membership significantly increased the risk of mortality. This suggests that appraisals of hassles intensity are better predictors of mortality than simple exposure measures, and that uplifts have no independent effects.

Objective: Spirituality is favorably related to depression, quality of life, hospitalizations, and other important outcomes in congestive heart failure (CHF) patients but has not been examined as a predictor of mortality risk in this population. Given the well-known difficulties in managing CHF, we hypothesized that spirituality would be associated with lower mortality risk, controlling for baseline demographics, functional status, health behaviors, and religiousness., Method: Participants were 191 CHF patients (64% male; M age = 68.6 years, SD = 10.1) who completed a baseline survey and were then followed for 5 years., Results: Nearly 1/3 of the sample (32%) died during the study period. Controlling for demographics and health status, smoking more than doubled the risk of mortality, whereas alcohol consumption was associated with slightly lower risk of mortality. Importantly, adherence to healthy lifestyle recommendations was associated with halved mortality risk. Although both religion and spirituality were associated with better health behaviors at baseline in bivariate analyses, a proportional hazard model showed that only spirituality was significantly associated with reduced mortality risk (by 20%), controlling for demographics, health status, and health behaviors., Conclusions: Experiencing spiritual peace, along with adherence to a healthy lifestyle, were better predictors of mortality risk in this sample of CHF patients than were physical health indicators such as functional status and comorbidity. Future research might profitably examine the efficacy of attending to spiritual issues along with standard lifestyle interventions., ((c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).)

Purpose of the Study: We tested a life-span model of combat exposure on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in later life, examining the direct and indirect effects of prewar, warzone, and postwar factors., Design and Methods: The sample included 947 male World War II and Korean War veterans from the VA Normative Aging Study (Mage = 65, SD = 7). They completed mail surveys on childhood family environment, military service and postwar experience, stressful life events, and PTSD symptoms (response rates > 80%)., Results: We constructed an initial path model testing cumulative advantage and disadvantage pathways. Although all hypothesized relationships were significant, the model was not a good fit to the data. Subsequent models showed that all three life-span periods had both direct and indirect effects on PTSD symptoms and that there were interesting cross-links between the two sets of pathways., Implications: The life-span perspective provides a useful heuristic to model various developmental effects on later-life outcomes. A supportive childhood family environment can have lifelong protective effects, whereas a conflictual one can set up lifelong patterns of pessimistic appraisals., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Most research on military service focuses on its short-term negative consequences, especially the mental and physical injuries of those deployed in warzones. However, studies of long-term outcomes reveal surprisingly positive effects of military service--both those early in adulthood that grow over time and others that can emerge later in life. These multidomain effects have been found in veterans of World War II and the Korean War and are now being seen in veterans of the Vietnam War. Although some are directly attributable to public policies such as the GI Bill, which facilitate educational and economic gains, there are personal developmental gains as well, including autonomy, emotional maturity and resilience, mastery, and leadership skills, that lead to better health and well-being in later life. These long-term effects vary across persons, change over time within persons, and often reflect processes of cumulative advantage and disadvantage. We propose a life-span model of the effects of military service that provides a perspective for probing both long-term positive and negative outcomes for aging veterans. We further explicate the model by focusing on both sociocultural dynamics and individual processes. We identify public-use data that can be examined to evaluate this model, and offer a set of questions that can be used to assess military service. Finally, we outline an agenda for dedicated inquiry into such effects and consider policy implications for the health and well-being of aging veterans in later life., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Gerontological Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Although early adversity has been linked to worse mental and physical health in adulthood, few studies have investigated the pathways through which positive and negative dimensions of early experiences can jointly influence psychological well-being in later life. This study examined: (a) profiles of early experiences across multiple domains, (b) the relations of these profiles to hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in later life, and (c) whether midlife social support mediated these relations. We first conducted latent class analysis of early experiences using data from 1,076 men in the VA Normative Aging Study who completed the Childhood Experiences Scale (age: M = 69, SD = 7). Analyses yielded 3 profiles of early experiences, labeled as cherished (strong support and some losses), harshly disciplined (harsh parental discipline, low positive reinforcement, and nonnormative stressors), and ordinary (few stressors and low parental attention). Next, we applied structural equation modeling to data on a subset of this sample assessed 7 years later on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (n = 496; age: M = 76, SD = 7). In general, the cherished group reported stronger qualitative social support in midlife than the harshly disciplined and ordinary groups, which in turn was related to greater hedonic (life satisfaction, positive affect) and eudaimonic (competence, positive relations with others) well-being in later life. The cherished group also reported higher autonomy than the ordinary group, but this association was independent of midlife social support. Our findings suggest that experiencing adversity in the context of a nurturing early environment can promote successful aging through the maintenance of supportive relationships in midlife., ((c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).)

This study aimed to examine reciprocal relations between cholesterol and depression. We assessed cholesterol and depressive symptoms twice over a 3-year interval, using 842 men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study ( M  = 64, standard deviation = 8). Because depressive symptoms were skewed, we used zero-inflated Poisson analyses. Cross-lagged models showed that cholesterol levels at T1 predicted the existence of depressive symptoms at T2, covarying T1 depressive symptoms, age, smoking status, body mass index, and medications. Depressive symptoms at T1 did not predict cholesterol at T2. Low cholesterol levels may be risk factors for development of depressive symptoms in late life., Competing Interests: The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the US Department of Veterans Affairs.

Whether wisdom is a culturally-specific or universal construct is a matter of some debate (see Curnow 1999; Grossman et al. Psychological Science, 2012). This study compared similarities and differences in the factor structure of a measure of wisdom focused on self-transcendence in U.S. (n = 305, M(age) = 33.99) and Korean samples (n = 838, M(age) = 30.28), with ages ranging from 20 to 73). The Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (ASTI; Levenson et al. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 60, 127-143, 2005) has two factors, self-transcendence and alienation, the latter of which was included to differentiate between social withdrawals due to contemplative practices versus that due to depression. Confirmatory factor analyses found a partial scalar factorial invariance model fit the data best, indicating that the factor structure of the ASTI is largely equivalent and that the construct is comparable across the two cultures. Regression analyses showed that age and religiousness were related to self-transcendence and alienation. Education was related to self-transcendence only. The interaction between age and culture was significant on alienation; alienation was higher in mid-life Koreans but not in Americans, which may reflect either age or cohort effects. Thus, self-transcendence may be a more universal measure of wisdom than those based on pragmatics or cognitive functioning.

Science is in the midst of a Kuhnian paradigm shift, from causal, deterministic models to more probabilistic ones that emphasize systems approaches. However, systems theory is still primarily deterministic and does not readily integrate the construct of free will. In the developmental sciences, this shift has been manifesting in relational developmental systems theories (RSDTs) which highlight multi-level analyses, interindividual differences in intraindividual change, and co-action with the context. While agency is an important component in RSDTs, it is unclear how it develops. We argue that free will is a developmental construct, and that the process of the development of free will can arise in two ways: from life-changing encounters with major stressors which result in recognizing limiting influences on one's life and the development of greater self-awareness; and purposive development to increase self-regulation and mindfulness. Through purposive, mindful co-action, the individual and the network can co-evolve in positive ways.

We investigated whether hassles mediated the effect of life events on mortality in a sample of 1293 men (Mage=65.58, SD=7.01), participants in the VA Normative Aging Study. We utilized measures of stressful life events (SLE) and hassles from 1989 to 2004, and men were followed for mortality until 2010. For life events and hassles, previous research identified three and four patterns of change over time, respectively, generally indicating low, moderate, and high trajectories, with one moderate, non-linear pattern for hassles (shallow U curve). Controlling for demographics and health behaviors, we found that those with moderate SLE trajectories (38%) more likely to die than those with low SLE trajectories, HR=1.42, 95% CI [1.16, 3.45]. Including the hassles classes showed that those with the moderate non-linear hassles trajectory were 63% more likely to die than those with low hassles trajectory, HR=1.63, 95% CI [1.19, 2.23], while those with consistently high hassles trajectory were over 3 times more likely to die, HR=3.30, 95% CI [1.58, 6.89]. However, the HR for moderate SLE trajectory decreased only slightly to 1.38, 95% CI [1.13, 1.68], suggesting that the two types of stress have largely independent effects on mortality. Research is needed to determine the physiological and behavioral pathways through which SLE and hassles differentially affect mortality., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The articles in this issue are all based on the invited addresses given by the authors at the 2013 biennial meeting of the Society for the Study of Human Development. All of the authors address the unfolding paradigm shift in developmental sciences, from reductionism to relational developmental system theories. This theoretical stance involves the recognition of Individual ↔ context transactions, with multiple co-acting partners existing in dynamic relationships across the lifespan and life course. The articles address not only theoretical issues, but also methodological advances and their applications. While acknowledging the importance of new data collection and analytical techniques that permit the testing of more complex theoretical models, the articles demonstrate that well-designed questions from this theoretical perspective can also yield novel findings which are highly relevant to current real-world problems and social policy issues.

To examine emotion regulation in later life, we contrasted the modified hedonic treadmill theory with developmental theories, using hassles and uplifts to assess emotion regulation in context. The sample was 1,315 men from the VA Normative Aging Study aged 53 to 85 years, who completed 3,894 observations between 1989 and 2004. We computed 3 scores for both hassles and uplifts: intensity (ratings reflecting appraisal processes), exposure (count), and summary (total) scores. Growth curves over age showed marked differences in trajectory patterns for intensity and exposure scores. Although exposure to hassles and uplifts decreased in later life, intensity scores increased. Group-based modeling showed individual differences in patterns of hassles and uplifts intensity and exposure, with relative stability in uplifts intensity, normative nonlinear changes in hassles intensity, and complex patterns of individual differences in exposure for both hassles and uplifts. Analyses with the summary scores showed that emotion regulation in later life is a function of both developmental change and contextual exposure, with different patterns emerging for hassles and uplifts. Thus, support was found for both hedonic treadmill and developmental change theories, reflecting different aspects of emotion regulation in late life., ((c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved.)

We examined whether the social convoy model and socioemotional selectivity theory apply in collectivistic cultures by examining the contextual factors which are hypothesized to mediate age-related differences in social support in a collectivist European country. Five hundred Spanish community-dwelling older adults (Mean age = 74.78, SD = 7.76, range = 60-93) were interviewed to examine structural aspects of their social networks. We found that age showed highly complex relationships with network size and frequency of interaction, depending on the network circle and the mediation of cultural factors. Family structure was important for social relations in the inner circle, while pubs and churches were important for peripheral relations. Surprisingly, pub attendance was the most important variable for maintenance of social support of peripheral network members. In general, the results support the applicability of the social convoy and socioemotional selectivity constructs to social support among Spanish older adults.

We examined long-term patterns of stressful life events (SLE) and their impact on mortality contrasting two theoretical models: allostatic load (linear relationship) and hormesis (inverted U relationship) in 1443 NAS men (aged 41-87 in 1985; M = 60.30, SD = 7.3) with at least two reports of SLEs over 18 years (total observations = 7,634). Using a zero-inflated Poisson growth mixture model, we identified four patterns of SLE trajectories, three showing linear decreases over time with low, medium, and high intercepts, respectively, and one an inverted U, peaking at age 70. Repeating the analysis omitting two health-related SLEs yielded only the first three linear patterns. Compared to the low-stress group, both the moderate and the high-stress groups showed excess mortality, controlling for demographics and health behavior habits, HRs = 1.42 and 1.37, ps <.01 and <.05. The relationship between stress trajectories and mortality was complex and not easily explained by either theoretical model.

The paths via which childhood experiences influence well-being in adulthood are not well defined because most research relies on retrospective reports. This study examined the influence of demographic characteristics and current mood states on the reliability of reports of childhood experiences. The Child Experiences Scale (CES) was administered in 1996 and 2001 to participants in the Davis Longitudinal Study (N = 571; age range 22-61 years). Responses showed moderate to high cross-time reliability. Males were slightly more likely to change their responses. The influence of mood states was weak and more evident for global ratings of childhood than for specific experiences. These findings support the use of retrospective reports of childhood., ((c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved.)

Exposure to trauma can lead to both posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress, but little is known about the commonalities and differences in the pathways through which they occur. The authors examined coping and emotional reactions as mediators of the effect of television exposure on both posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress in a nationally representative sample of 1,004 U.S. adults approximately 6 weeks after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Although posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress symptoms were moderately positively related, the pathways from coping and emotions to the outcomes differed: Positive coping and anger were more strongly related to posttraumatic growth than to posttraumatic stress, and pathways of negative coping and feeling depressed regarding the attacks were more strongly related to stress than to growth. Comparison of models suggested that emotions are both outcomes of and motivators for coping and that patterns of coping and emotions relate differentially to posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth., ((c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)

Although coping has been shown to influence physical health in younger populations, whether coping affects health in older adults appears to depend upon how coping and health are conceptualized. This article reviews recent literature on coping and health in older adults in three areas. First, we discuss coping's distinct relevance to health in older adults. Second, we describe ways in which coping may differ between older and younger populations. Third, we detail recent and notable findings of coping's specific effects on biomedical health and health in general. The recent literature suggests that coping may be a developmental and multifaceted process. Positive coping strategies may have positive and even protective effects on health, whereas negative strategies may have negative effects.

We evaluated the efficacy of an emotional education program that seeks to reduce the intergenerational transmission of negative interaction patterns by increasing forgiveness and spirituality. We examined both reduction of psychological symptoms and increase in positive psychological outcomes over the course of a year, as well as the mediators of this change. At baseline, the sample consisted of 99 participants and 47 waiting list controls. Comparisons of scores from baseline (Time 1) to one week after the Hoffman Quadrinity Process (Time 2) showed large declines in negative affect (depressive symptoms) and increases in both positive outcomes (mastery, empathy, emotional intelligence, life satisfaction, forgiveness, and spiritual experience) and health and well-being. Over the course of a year, most of these gains were sustained, in comparison with the control group. Further, increases in forgiveness and spirituality mediated the effect of program participation on depressive symptoms.

Objectives: This study investigated the differential relationships between different types and sources of social support and physical and mental health., Methods: Using data from the Normative Aging Study, 1,386 older men (median age = 62.7 years) were categorized into four groups separately for frequency of interaction with networks and perceived support., Results: More than half the sample reported high levels of support from both sources. One-way ANOVAs revealed that those with high perceived support from both sources reported better physical health and fewer depressive symptoms than those with low support from both sources or high support from family alone. Similarly, those with high perceived support from both sources had lower levels of depressive symptoms than those with low support from both sources, but frequency of contact was unrelated to physical health., Discussion: In general, those with high support from both family and friends reported the highest level of well-being.

Individual differences in physical and psychological health trajectories were examined in 1,515 Normative Aging Study men. Mean age at baseline was 47.15 years (range = 28-80), and average follow up was 18.55 years (range = 8-25). Both linear and nonlinear growth curves were estimated with random-effects models and then clustered to identify patterns of change. Men whose physical health trajectories were characterized by high, increasing symptoms were higher in hostility and anxiety, were overweight, and smoked. Those whose trajectories were characterized by low symptoms were emotionally stable, educated, nonsmokers, and thin. Men with high, stable psychological trajectories had high hostility; those with low, stable trajectories had high emotional stability; those with moderate anxiety levels had nonlinear trajectories with peaks in psychological symptoms at different life stages. Personality had life-long effects on health trajectories, but these effects varied across traits and health outcomes.

Objective: Several studies have shown that hostility, as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-derived Cook-Medley Hostility Scale (Ho), is positively associated with several cardiovascular risk factors, possibly accounting for the relationship between Ho scores and cardiovascular mortality. This study was undertaken to examine associations between hostility and cardiovascular risk factors representing the metabolic syndrome in 1,081 older men who participated in the Normative Aging Study., Methods: Subjects included men who completed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in 1986 and who participated in a subsequent laboratory examination within 1 to 4 years. Total and subscale Ho scores were computed, and associations with anthropometric data, cigarette smoking, dietary information, serum lipids, blood pressure, and fasting glucose and insulin levels were examined., Results: The total Ho score was positively associated with waist/hip ratio, body mass index, total caloric intake, fasting insulin level, and serum triglycerides. The Ho score was inversely related to education and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration. Path analysis also suggested that the effects of hostility on insulin, triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were mediated by its effects on body mass index and waist/hip ratio, which, in turn, exerted their effects on lipids and blood pressure through insulin., Conclusions: The results are consistent with those of prior research and also suggest that, in older men, hostility may be associated with a pattern of obesity, central adiposity, and insulin resistance, which can exert effects on blood pressure and serum lipids. Furthermore, effects of hostility on the metabolic syndrome appear to be mediated by body mass index and waist/hip ratio.

Objective: We examined whether alcohol consumption and problem drinking decreased with age or if the reported declines were actually cohort and/or period effects., Method: We utilized data from the Normative Aging Study, assessing 1,267 men three times over an 18-year period (1973, 1982, 1991). Men were divided into five 9-year birth cohorts; age ranged from 46 to 72., Results: Sequential analyses using repeated measures ANOVAs showed significant age, cohort and period effects. Although there was a tendency for alcohol consumption to decline with age, this was not true for all cohorts. Men born between 1910 and 1918 increased from an average of 350 to 440 drinks per year from their fifties to their sixties. The younger cohorts tended to report both more consumption and more problems. However, period had the most consistent effect in this study. There was an increase in problems and in consumption during the 1970s but a decrease in the 1980s, with the exception of the youngest cohort (1937-1945) who reported more problems in the 1991 assessment despite lower consumption., Conclusions: Age-related change in both consumption and problems varied depending upon which cohort or time period was assessed. Thus, drinking patterns are a complex amalgam of individual aging and societal change.

This study modeled physical symptom trajectories from ages 30 to 75 in 1079 older male military veterans who were assessed every 3 to 5 years since the 1960s. Combat exposure and noncombat trauma were used to define four groups: no trauma (N = 249), noncombat trauma only (N = 333), combat only (N = 152), and both combat and noncombat trauma (N = 345). Number of symptoms on the Cornell Medical Index physical symptom scale increased 29% per decade. Men who had experienced either combat or noncombat trauma did not differ from nonexposed men, but those who had experienced both combat and noncombat trauma had 16% more symptoms across all ages. There were no differences in age-related trajectories as a function of trauma history. In cross-sectional analysis, men with combat and noncombat trauma had more posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, but not more depression symptoms, than men with either no trauma or noncombat trauma only. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering physical as well as psychological outcomes of exposure to traumatic events.

We examined three community samples to determine whether stressful episodes form a context for the development of coping resources in adulthood. The first study found that 81.9% of a sample of 845 older men reported drawing upon prior experiences in coping with a recent problem. Content analysis revealed that only 22.7% drew upon similar stressful episodes; the rest drew upon problems from work, the military, illnesses, deaths, etc. The second study replicated the earlier findings in 102 men and women, ages 24 to 84, who reported on a recent low point in semistructured interviews. In addition, 75% reported long-term effects, equally split between negative, positive, and mixed effects. Those individuals who perceived advantages from the low point were significantly more likely to report positive long-term effects. The third study replicated the findings from the first two studies in a sample of 941 men and women ages 23 to 62. Path analyses showed that coping strategies differentially predicted perceived positive or negative outcomes, which in turn predicted current mastery and depression levels. While the findings are cross-sectional and causality cannot be inferred, they are nonetheless supportive of the effects of stress and coping on personality.

Personality predictors of hypertension incidence were studied in 838 community-residing men from the Normative Aging Study. They were followed over a mean of 17 years during which time 38% developed hypertension. Stepwise proportional hazards regression was used to identify scales from the Cattell 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire that predicted hypertension incidence, controlling for biomedical, social, and behavioral risk factors. There was a significant negative relation between the personality trait of emotional stability and the incidence of hypertension, controlling for baseline blood pressure, education, and alcohol consumption. These results support those who argue that personality characteristics predict the development of hypertension.

The nature of secular trends in survival curves has been widely debated. Fries (1984) has argued for increasing rectangularization, while Myers and Manton (1984a; 1984b) have observed increases in mean age at death with little or no change in standard deviation--arguing against rectangularization. We hypothesize that ethnic differences in mortality trends may shed light on this argument. Using California population data for 1970, 1980, and 1990, we examined ethnic differences in rectangularization using both visual and means and standard deviations analyses. The resulting patterns varied by ethnicity, gender, and type of analyses. Nearly all female groups demonstrated modest rectangularization, regardless of mean age of death, while most of the male groups did not.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether appraisals of desirable and undesirable effects of military service mediated the effect of combat stress on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in later life in 1,287 male veterans, aged 44-91 years (M = 63.56, SD = 7.46), 40% of whom had been in combat. The men reported more desirable effects of military service (e.g., mastery, self-esteem, and coping skills) than undesirable ones; both increased linearly with combat exposure (r = .17 and .33, p < .001, respectively). Path analysis revealed that the appraisals were independent and opposite mediators, with undesirable effects increasing and desirable effects decreasing the relationship between combat exposure and PTSD, even controlling for depression and response style. Although lifelong negative consequences of combat exposure were observed, perceiving positive benefits from this stressful experience mitigated the effect.

Nearly 25% of U.S. men aged 55 or older served in combat, yet its impact on aging is unknown. The relationship of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms to combat exposure was examined in 1,210 veterans of World War II (WWII) and the Korean War, who were participants in the Normative Aging Study. Over 54% of WWII and 19% of Korean veterans reported combat experience. The relationship between combat exposure and PTSD symptoms was stronger in the WWII cohort. The sample prevalence of PTSD by combat exposure ranged from 0% to 12.4%, differing by the PTSD measure. WWII veterans exposed to moderate or heavy combat had 13.3 times greater risk of PTSD symptoms measured 45 years later, compared with noncombat veterans. It is suggested that military service in general, and combat exposure in particular, is a "hidden variable" in the study of aging men.

Validation of Scheier and Carver's (1985) Life Orientation Test (LOT) has identified associations between bipolar optimism and several external constructs. However, optimism and pessimism may be not bipolar, but rather separate constructs. Furthermore, these constructs may be indistinguishable from personality traits, such as neuroticism and extraversion. This study examined the associations of separate optimism and pessimism measures with self-reports of hassles, psychological symptoms, and illness severity, controlling for personality. Ss were 1,192 men from the Normative Aging Study. Findings suggest that optimism and pessimism are separate and that their relations to external criteria remain, although attenuated, when neuroticism and extraversion are controlled.

Although retirement is generally thought to lead to a decline in social support due to a loss of social contacts with coworkers, the evidence for this is at best contradictory. This longitudinal study examined change in social support among 1,311 men, participants in the Veterans Administration Normative Aging Study, over a 3-year period. In general, long-term retirees reported the least quantitative social support, and the continuing full-time workers the most; however, change in workforce status produced no apparent effect on quantitative support over the duration of this study. In general, qualitative support showed no retirement effects. We also examined more specific patterns of coworker friendship and again found a pattern similar to that of general quantitative support. The findings support our earlier suggestion of a distinction between retirement as a transition and retirement as a state, and also support the convoy model of social support in late life and the selectivity theory of developmental adaptation to aging.