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Human Resource (HR) takes a dominate place in the life of an organization knowing that it becomes one of the competitive factors, it is also considered an important preoccupation of governments who try to control the wage bill and the HR structure evolution. The current trend in HRM is to enhance it to the strategic level. The HR field is a complex system, its management is affected by the HR behavior in the way that it is very tough to predict or analyze the preferences and decisions of an employee; HRM is a dynamic discipline highly linked with people behavior, which interact freely without anyone's guidance. This analysis named bottom-up starts by focusing on the characteristics of each agent at a micro-level, because the agents behaviors and interactions each other and with the external environment lead to new laws and changes that occur on the macro-level. For this reason an Agent Based Modeling (ABM) is proposed in this paper to integrate this property (behaviorism) in modeling the HR structure evolution. This approach takes into consideration the endogenous conditions of an employee in his work and the exogenous shocks that can affect his behavior; the goal is to get closer to the HRM aspects reality and predict the future patterns of the HR structure.

Fusarium root rot is a major cryptogamic disease in olive trees caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium solani. Controlling this disease requires the extensive use of chemicals. However, using BCAs such as some Trichoderma strains may be an opportune alternative to fungicides in protecting olive plantations. A new isolate (Fso14) was isolated from young olive trees showing severe dieback symptoms. The objective of this work was to analyze the biocontrol behavior of a Tunisian strain of T. harzianum (Ths97) on olive trees against Fso14 by assessing both mycoparasitic activity (in planta and in vitro) and ability to locally modulate different gene-related defenses of the plant. Ths97 was found to inhibit Fso14 growth in vitro. Optical microscopic analysis at the confrontation zone between hyphae showed that Ths97 grew alongside Fso14 with numerous contact points suggesting parasitic activity. On olive trees, Ths97 developed a strong protective role against root infestation by Fso14, whether inoculated before or after the pathogenic agent. When inoculated alone, Fso14 and Ths97 did not modulate (or only slightly with inhibitions or inductions, respectively) the expression of genes involved in plant immunity (oxidative stress, phenylpropanoid pathway, PR-proteins and JA/Et-SA hormonal status). However, when Ths97 was inoculated in combination with Fso14, several defense-related genes were highly up-regulated, indicating probable primed-plant events. These promising results provided valuable information on using Ths97 as a beneficial agent to control fusarium root rot disease caused by F. solani in olive trees.

In order to evaluate their potential to be used as charcoal production by a new industrial thermal treatment process; the wood of seven trees of introduced species in the North eastern Tunisia (3 Eucalyptus, 4 Casuarina) and 1 local species (Tetraclinis) were selected. Physical properties of natural woods and Gravimetric yields in charcoal, ultimate composition, heating values measurements and combustion quality tests were performed before and after carbonization process. For the same thermal degradation intensity (550 °C—4 h), Gravimetric yields in charcoal values were comprised between 41.1 and 45.3.9% for Casuarina wood species, 35.5 and 39.4% for Eucalyptus wood species and was 33.7% for Tetraclinis articulata wood. Elemental composition showed a significant difference between the selected species. It varies from 1.46 to 1.65 for H/C and 0.67 to 0.77 for O/C. Casuarina wood species showed the lowest values for the both ratios. The calorific values showed that the selected wood species have Heating Values ranged from 16.264to 20.798 MJ/kg and allow producing charcoal with heating values comprised between 23.871 and 30.943 MJ/kg. The best energetic improvement by carbonization process, in this work, concerns Eucalyptus and Tetraclinis woods, except for the Eucalyptus salmonophloia but the combustion quality showed that Casuarina wood species appears to be the wood species with the most optimal combustion, after undergoing a carbonization process.

Major intrinsic proteins (MIP) are characterized by a transmembrane pore-type architecture that facilitates transport across biomembranes of water and a variety of low molecular weight solutes. They are found in all parts of life, with remarkable protein diversity. Very little is known about MIP from fungi. And yet, it can legitimately be stated that MIP are pivotal molecular components in the privileged relationships fungi enjoy with plants or soil fauna in various environments. To date, MIP have never been studied in a mycoparasitism situation. In this study, the diversity, expression and functional prediction of MIP from the genus Trichoderma were investigated. Trichoderma spp. genomes have at least seven aquaporin genes. Based on a phylogenetic analysis of the translated sequences, members were assigned to the AQP, AQGP and XIP subfamilies. In in vitro and in planta assays with T. harzianum strain Ths97, expression analyses showed that four genes were constitutively expressed. In a mycoparasitic context with Fusarium solani, the causative agent of fusarium dieback on olive tree roots, these genes were up-regulated. This response is of particular interest in analyzing the MIP promoter cis-regulatory motifs, most of which are involved in various carbon and nitrogen metabolisms. Structural analyses provide new insights into the possible role of structural checkpoints by which these members transport water, H2O2, glycerol and, more generally, linear polyols across the membranes. Taken together, these results provide the first evidence that MIP may play a key role in Trichoderma mycoparasitism lifestyle.

The objective of this work is to study the calorific power of nine eucalypt woods from central Tunisia for carbonization process. The ignition temperature, the calorific power of each species and the gas exhaustion during pyrolysis were measured and their average values were compared. The calorific values of the wood of these species varied between 4017 and 4541 Kcal/kg. The ignition temperature ranged between 252 and 390°C. The combustion temperature of the samples within the calorimeter was between 463 °C and 575°C. The percentage of wood ash after combustion was between 1.0 to 2.2 %. The analysis of the experiments conducted during 2 consecutive years showed that certain species were similar while others were significantly different.

Success of plantation establishment depends on the ability of seedlings to withstand animal browsing and competition from vegetation. This study in northwestern Tunisia examined the influence of browsing protection and vegetation control on seedling mortality, diameter, and height growth components of an evergreen sclerophyllous oak species, cork oak (Quercus suber L.) for the first 2 years after planting (2005 and 2006). Browsing protection was controlled by varying both treeshelter type (non-vented, vented, and control) and height (1.2-m and 1.8-m tall). Competing vegetation was controlled through increasing sizes of square-shaped black polyethylene mulch sheets: 0 m, 0.7 m, 1 m and 1.3 m large. Seedling mortality rate was relatively low during the first year (9%) and was not affected by any of the studied factors. During the following year, mortality was lower for seedlings in both types (non-vented and vented) of 1.2-m tall treeshelters than for unsheltered ones. Mortality was only slightly higher for 1.8-m tall shelters than for 1.2-m shelters. Compared to unsheltered seedlings, basal diameter was reduced during both seasons for seedlings inside non-vented treeshelters (1.2-m and 1.8-m tall), whereas for vented shelters it was reduced during the first year and then increased during the second year. Height growth was positively affected by tree shelters during both years. Seedlings inside non-vented 1.8-m tall shelters were the tallest having an average height of up to 140 cm at the end of the second year, while the unsheltered seedlings had only an average height of up to 42 cm. The greater height of the sheltered seedlings was attributed to the increase of: (1) the number of shoot flushes yearly established on the main stem (up to three), and (2) the length of all the growth units produced during each flush. Seedlings inside vented shelters had balanced growth with a low proportion of seedlings unable to support themselves without a stake (7%). However, non-vented shelters had unbalanced height and diameter growths resulting in both a higher height-to-diameter ratio and in a higher proportion of seedlings having stability problems (47%). Polyethylene mulch sheets did not affect early survival, seedling basal diameter, or number of shoot flushes established yearly, but did slightly improve seedling height at the end of the second season, mostly due to the significant improvement in shoot elongation of the first flush. Results suggest that both 1.8 m treeshelters and plastic mulches may enhance the growth of cork oak seedlings planted on harsh sites in northwestern Tunisia.

Biological disease control through the use of microorganisms has a great potential for future use in integrated pest management. In a multidisciplinary and fundamental context of molecular physio-phytopathology and to provide solutions for the actors in the olive profession and the consumers, we have been studying the activity of a fungal biocontrol agent, Trichoderma harzianum (strain Ths97) against the olive tree pathogen Fusarium solani (strain Fso14), which causes major problems for olive production in Tunisia and elsewhere. The project consists of two parts. In the first part, we have demonstrated that Ths97 is a biocontrol agent effective against the F. solani Fso14 pathogen. Induction of plant defence responses by Ths97 was shown to be partly responsible for the biocontrol effect. In vitro tests further showed that Ths97 develops mycoparasitic activities towards F. solani Fso14, by forming infection structures such as hyphae windings and wedges, appressoria and papillae. In the second part of the study, we investigated the Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIP) superfamily in the Trichoderma genus. This multigenic family has never been investigated in a hyperparasitic fungal species. Seven MIP members are present in T. harzianum, and are classified into 3 subgroups: AQP, AQGP and XIP. Their three-dimensional structures and their putative involvement in transport of water and certain polyols have been examined. Finally, their transcription profiles were monitored in Ths97 in planta in antagonistic situations and in vitro in a parasitic situation with Fso14 and show that 4 MIP are expressed and regulated differentially during the interaction. Our work has shown that Ths97 must be considered as a biological control agent and biostimulator of plant defences, and that MIPs are involved in the trophic relationships between T. harzianum and the environment. These data contributes to the further development of T. harzianum as an efficient biocontrol agent for sustainable protection of olive trees in Tunisia and around the world.; La lutte biologique par utilisation de micro-organismes a indéniablement un potentiel de développement considérable. Dans un contexte multidisciplinaire et fondamental de physio-phytopathologie moléculaire et répondant à d’éminents enjeux appliqués et attendus par les acteurs de la profession oléicole et les consommateurs, nous nous sommes projetés dans l’étude des propriétés intrinsèques d’un agent de biocontrôle fongique, Trichoderma harzianum (souche Ths97) contre l’agent de la fusariose Fusarium solani (souche Fso14), qui sévit sévèrement sur une culture pérenne majeure pour la Tunisie, l’oléiculture. Deux axes de recherche ont été menés. Dans le premier axe, nous avons démontré que Ths97 est un agent de biocontrôle efficace contre la virulence de F. solani Fso14. Cette capacité s’accompagne d’une accumulation des défenses chez le partenaire végétal, des accumulations qui sont d’autant plus fortes quand l’agent bénéfique est en présence du pathogène (événements de priming). De même, des tests in vitro montrent que Ths97développe des activités mycoparasites envers F. solani Fso14, en émettant des structures d’infection classiques tels des enroulements et accolements d’hyphes, des appressoria et des papilles. Quant au second axe d’étude, nous avons étudié la superfamille des perméases Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIP) dans le genre Trichoderma. Cette famille multigénique n’a jamais été étudiée chez un agent fongique hyperparasite. Sept membres MIP sont présents chez T. harzianum, et se classent en 3 sous-groupes, les AQP, les AQGP et les XIP. La modélisation des structures tridimensionnelles et les fonctions putatives de transport pour l’eau et quelques polyols ont été étudiées. Enfin, leurs patrons transcriptionnels ont été suivis chez Ths97 in planta en situation d’antagonisme et in vitro en situation de parasitisme vis-à-vis de Fso14, et montrent que 4 MIP sont exprimées et régulées différentiellement selon que Ths97 est au contact de Fso14 ou pas. Nos travaux ont donc mis en lumière que Ths97 doit être considéré comme un agent biofongicide et biostimulateur de défenses végétales, puis que les MIP seraient impliqués dans les relations trophiques que met en place T. harzianum avec son environnement. Ces données devraient intégrer le développement de procédés plus efficaces et/ou plus durables pour la protection des cultures d’oliviers en Tunisie ainsi qu’à travers le monde.