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This study is focused on 3D printing of polyamide 6 (PA6), PA6/graphene oxide (PA6/GO) and PA6/glass-fibre-reinforced (PA6/GF) composites. The effect of graphene oxide and glass-fibre reinforcement on 3D-printed PA6 is explored for improvement of the interfacial bond and interlaminar strength in ambient, wet and high temperature conditions relating to electric car battery box requirements. The influence of environmental conditions and process parameters on the 3D-printed polymer composites quality is also examined. Commercial PA6 filament was modified with GO to investigate the thermal and mechanical properties. The modified composites were melt-compounded using a twin-feed extruder to produce an improved 3D-printing filament. The improved filaments were then used to 3D-print test samples for tensile and compression mechanical testing using universal testing machines and thermal characterisation was performed following condition treatment in high temperature and water for correlation to dry/ambient samples. The study results show the studied materials were mostly suitable in dry/ambient conditions. PA6/GF samples demonstrated the highest strength of all three samples in ambient and high-temperature conditions, but the least strength in wet conditions due to osmotic pressure at the fibre/matrix interface that led to fibre breakage. The introduction of 0.1% GO improved the tensile strength by 33%, 11% and 23% in dry/ambient, dry/high temperature and wet/ambient conditions, respectively. The wet PA6/GO samples demonstrated the least strength in comparison to the ambient and high-temperature conditions. Notwithstanding this, PA6/GO exhibited the highest tensile strength in the wet condition, making it the most suitable for a high-strength, water-exposed engineering application.

Research has identified improvisation as a creative and open activity that can be harnessed to encourage innovation and learning within the organization. In this paper, we present improvisation as a covert phenomenon, occurring in a climate of mistrust and fear of censure, and disconnected with wider organizational learning. Drawing on qualitative evidence of a Fire Service in the United Kingdom, we explore hidden improvisation, and identify the conditions and processes that can connect these local deviations to wider processes of learning. We show that while most improvisations remain hidden and contained to avoid wider scrutiny, certain conditions of frequency, connectedness and scale escalate events to become more visible to supervisors and managers. The learning outcomes from these visible improvisations will then depend on management’s interpretation, evaluation and translation of improvising behaviours. Dependent on prior relationships of trust and credibility, middle management perform a key brokering role in this process, connecting previously hidden improvisation to wider organizational systems and structures. Publisher PDF

© 2018 British Academy of Management Resource constraints are a challenge for social enterprises, prompting interest in innovative approaches to address these deficiencies. In this study, we contribute to the literature on resourcing practices in small, early stage, social enterprises by examining the role of socially oriented bootstrapping for resource access. We use data from eight UK social enterprises to reveal organizational practices – building credibility, leveraging persuasion and creating resource communities – that shape a diverse set of bootstrapping mechanisms to facilitate exchange relationships and to enable resource acquisition and mobilization. We argue that the unique position of social enterprises allows them to benefit from socially orientated bootstrapping and they display a complex approach that is shaped by a creative interplay of practices to support value creation through resource exchange.

Empirical evidence for links between human capital and entrepreneurship potential is equivocal despite a wide range of studies. This research draws on prospective longitudinal data from the National Child Development Study (NCDS) to offer new theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence on the human capital predictors that drive entrepreneurship. The results suggest that start-up is more likely for those who demonstrate higher levels of analytical and creative abilities in childhood, benefit from a supportive family background, invest in their human capital through diverse and longer work experience and have accrued a solid basic education, albeit not strongly credentialed. This article contributes to a better understanding of human capital acquisition during the unfolding entrepreneurial life-course. Mediators and moderators of the relationship between education, human capital and entrepreneurship are also identified by accentuating the importance of family processes. In doing so, this study bridges the human capital and cultural capital literatures that have tended to evolve on separate tracks.

We explore how socially embedded life courses of individuals within Britain affect the resources they have available and their capacity to apply those resources to start-up. We propose that there will be common pathways to entrepreneurship from privileged resource ownership and test our propositions by modelling a specific life course framework, based on class and gender. We operationalize our model employing 18 waves of the British Household Panel Survey and event history random effect logistic regression modelling. Our hypotheses receive broad support. Business start-up in Britain is primarily made from privileged class backgrounds that enable resource acquisition and are a means of reproducing or defending prosperity. The poor avoid entrepreneurship except when low household income threatens further downward mobility and entrepreneurship is a more attractive option. We find that gendered childcare responsibilities disrupt class-based pathways to entrepreneurship. We interpret the implications of this s...

This study investigated the effectiveness of reduced graphene oxide as nanofiller in enhancing epoxy/carbon fibre-reinforced composite at varying temperature conditions. The graphene oxide was synthesised using modified Hummer’s method and then chemically reduced to yield reduced graphene oxide (rGO). The rGO was dispersed in epoxy matrix system through combination of mechanical and sonication methods. The flexural and shear test samples were manufactured using resin infusion technique. These samples were then tested to determine their shear and flexural properties at varying temperatures (-10°C, 23°C, 40°C) and the results correlated to neat samples. It was found that the composites’ flexural strength and flexural modulus increased with rGO wt.% content up to 62% and 44% respectively. The shear testing results showed improvement on the shear strength and modulus at maximum of 6% and 40% respectively. The rGO improvements advantage was lost for flexural strength, shear strength and modulus at elevated temperatures while flexural modulus withheld at 40% improvements over virgin epoxy/carbon fibre-reinforced composite. An interesting observation is that all samples with rGO exhibite reduced damage characteristics superior to the neat samples under flexural and shear loading conditions. This study indicates that the addition of rGO significantly alter the flexural and shear properties, failure modes, damage characteristics and they are overall sensitive to elevated temperature conditions.

PurposeThis empirical paper aims to show how communities of practice have been used as a tractable management tool to operationalize strategy in practice. The analysis shows how CoPs can be used in business to find traction in order to achieve strategic goals.Design/methodology/approachA two‐year longitudinal case study approach was adopted employing semi‐structured interviews, participant observations and document analysis for data collection. The findings were verified with the participants in the study during feedback events organised for that purpose.FindingsThe study provides in‐depth insights into the challenges of translating strategy into practice in complex work settings. In this case, uneven outcomes were attributed to three critical contributing factors: the leadership and governance structures, the meaningful ways in which members can participate and interact with others; and their identity and sense of belonging.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough a single case study only provides indications of potential generalisations, it does give access to issues that cannot be identified without an in‐depth analysis.Practical implicationsThe authors encourage executives to consider concepts of identity, participation and governance as useful heuristics for the analysis of practices of communities. Potential inconsistencies in community practices could have implications for the way strategy is translated into action.Originality/valueUnlike most community of practice studies, which focus on the community aspect of the concept, this study analyses the practices of communities. In doing so, it adds value to our understanding of the forces that shape social interactions embedded in the implementation of strategy in practice.

Previous research has examined learning from crises. However, comparatively neglected is the analysis of learning during such events. This explorative case study reports findings on how learning took place during the outbreak of Escherichia coli in Germany in 2011, which resulted in 53 fatalities. We identify three broad communities: (a) public agencies, (b) research institutions and hospitals and (c) opposition parties and non-governmental organizations. We discuss their conflicting interests in the face of the unfolding crisis, and we explore how their (re)actions and sensemaking affected the way the outbreak progressed. By conceptualizing the crisis as an epistemic object, we show how transepistemic sensemaking both enabled and constrained learning. The crisis, as an epistemic object, is a contested terrain, and each epistemic group’s commitments influenced the trajectory of their responses, demanding a processual perspective to capture the constantly realigning ways actors interpret and react upon the crisis. This study demonstrates how learning during a crisis may thus be transitory since it is hampered by a ‘war for meaning’. This ‘war’ potentially also prevents significant learning subsequent to a crisis, as institutional and epistemic commitments are quickly reformed and transepistemic engagements are closed.

We propose a methodology capturing the perception of geographical, monetary and transportation distance between secondary state schools in some Scottish remote communities and a hard to reach university located in a small town on the north-east coast of rural Fife, i.e. the University of St Andrews. The location of St Andrews and the absence of a railway station mean that it is often interpreted as being geographically isolated. As a result, the University of St Andrews is frequently perceived as hard to reach. We show that by combining representations in terms of mileage, journey duration and fare we can create an index that reflects the difficulty of geographical access to the University of St Andrews from these Scottish communities. This index is not dependent on the local authority in which the institutions are located, nor on the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation associated with each institution data zone, nor on the percentage rate of progression to higher education from these secondary schools. It is dependent on how distance may be perceived in terms of geographical access, monetary costs, and transportation. This index represents an alternative way of measuring remoteness. It could be easily (1) extended to many higher education institutions and (2) integrated into a contextualised admissions system in which applicants from Scottish remote communities would be signalled. Postprint

Over 7 years, the UK-Government funded an entrepreneurship scholarship scheme in the most deprived regions of England. This study examines how, for 211 of these nascent entrepreneurs, bootstrapping compensated for their inability to obtain debt or equity funding. Results show that social capital (strong, weak and brokerage ties) is important for access to bootstrapped resources. While human capital, including previous business experience and financial skills, are linked to joint-utilisation approaches to bootstrapping, higher financial investment is linked to owner- and payment-related approaches. A key outcome for developing appropriate regional policy is that ‘brokers’ provide a link between socially disadvantaged entrepreneurs and external resources.

This paper examines the organizational processes and responses to rule breaking and explores the reasons why some rule breaking events lead to learning and change, while others do not. Through a st...

Knowledge transformation between practice-based communities is reported through a 2-year longitudinal case study. The company, PresMed, was transformed from a moribund and divided organization to one where different practice-based communities engaged in collective learning. However, the transformation involved conflict, politics and power to overcome the influence of localized and embedded knowledge. The nature of practice-based learning means investment in past activities and different organizational communities create tensions. It is suggested that mediating artefacts, or boundary objects, provide an opportunity to develop new shared conceptions of activity and new modes of action. However, at the heart of this transformation, communication, politics and power are central to pragmatic engagement in new practices. Thus, it is the social activities and the political will and skill to influence, cajole and institutionalize systemic changes and not the artefacts or objects per se that are at the heart of knowledge transformation.

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the influence of a range of contingent factors that moderate the approaches to training in manufacturing SMEs.Design/methodology/approachThe study is based on a regression analysis of data from a survey of 198 manufacturing SMEs.FindingsThe findings suggest that there will be times when formal training is appropriate for SMEs. Dependent on size, product, market and organizational structures, formal training will be both required and/or encouraged by SME management. The challenge will be to understand specific organizational conditions, and to target the right type of intervention at a particular small firm based on its specific characteristics and needs. This will require a deeper understanding of the context and issues facing a specific firm.Practical implicationsBecause of the diversity of small firms' structures, product and market conditions and leadership and management approaches, generic support policies are unlikely to be effective. Research, management and policy instruments of training support will need to interact with, and be responsive to, the subtle distinctions of context that will moderate what is more appropriate, and more likely to be welcomed, in the small business sector. There does appear to be a demand for formal training in certain types of firms, but other learning initiatives will have to be supported where formal training is not appropriate or not welcome.Originality/valueThe empirical analysis and the tentative conceptual framework make an important contribution towards a demand‐led policy framework in the area of development and training support for SMEs.

PurposeThis study sets out to examine management development activities within manufacturing SMEs, and their impact on performance. Unlike previous published studies that concentrate on formal training, this empirical analysis includes both formal and informal training. Performance is measured in terms of turnover, employee growth, and survival. It also includes consideration of the firm's context on both training approach and performance.Design/methodology/approachSurvey responses from 198 manufacturing SMEs in the UK are analysed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression analysis, and ANOVA.FindingsFindings indicate that formal training is likely to be a targeted activity that contributes more significantly to performance than informal training. Also, the approach and influence of training are dependent on contingent factors. A model is proposed for a further detailed study of these contingent factors using a multivariate statistical analysis.Originality/valueFor SME managers, while they may prefer informal training approaches, they would benefit from seeking a formal training intervention that directly addresses their specific needs. For business support policy, support options need to be flexible enough to provide idiosyncratic solutions. Generic training solutions are not welcomed by SMEs, and are unlikely to provide significant performance benefits. A greater understanding is required of the variety of contingent variables that moderates the relationship between choices of training approach, and between training and performance.

A systematic review of empirical research on knowledge and growth in small firms is reported. The findings cover how human and social capital, organizational systems, and knowledge networks combine to facilitate or restrict growth. Findings highlight the situated, complex and idiosyncratic nature of small firm growth and the tensions between this experience and a prevailing view of knowledge in the existing research as a codifiable and transferable asset. A need for supplementary small firm heuristics (to age, size and sector) and epistemologies (to knowledge as an asset) and research approaches are identified to better investigate this diversity.

This paper develops a conceptualization of the way in which owner-managers in SMEs create strategic space. The term is defined as the time, resources, motivation and capabilities needed for owner-managers to reflect on and review existing practices leading to learning, transformation and higher organizational performance. The empirical data is based on a longitudinal study of 90 SMEs operating in six broad sectors. The analysis uses two statistical tests to examine links between 20 activities within these SMEs and their performance. The results identify strong links between two groups of factors and positive performance claims by owner-managers. Social attributes include work atmosphere, meetings and socializing. Structural attributes include training, knowledge structure, certification, systems and procedures. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Most attempts to model the process of organizational learning (OL) are based on large organizations. This article represents an attempt to better understand the unique learning processes in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Such firms are generally limited in both their managerial capabilities and mechanisms for accessing knowledge from external sources. Data were obtained as part of an ongoing Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) project concerned with the evolution of business knowledge in small firms operating in the North West of England. A conceptual framework was developed and used as the basis for analysing data obtained from interviews with 26 owner-managers. Our findings indicate two distinct groups, which we term innovative and stable firms. Owner-managers in ‘stable’ firms were inward facing, and learning was generally experiential and concentrated on single individuals or small groups. In contrast, owner-managers in innovative firms were outward facing and encouraged the development of ‘deeper and wider’ learning.

This article explores how mature SMEs which lack internal resources access external knowledge to facilitate strategic renewal. Organizational learning, in contrast to entrepreneurial learning, recognizes that owner-managers must distribute knowledge throughout the firm to achieve competitive benefits. Three case studies demonstrate how external ‘knowledge providers’ (customers, suppliers and educational institutions) help institutionalize ‘new’ knowledge. Initially, learning from inter-organizational relationships requires owner-managers to be proactive in accessing and extending appropriate inter-organizational relationships. Second, external organizations can play an active role by ‘intertwining’ knowledge to support the development of processes, systems and routines that distribute and institutionalize learning throughout the organization. The three cases have practical implications for owner-managers and add to academic knowledge via the extension of Crossan et al's 4I model of organizational learning.

This paper provides a systematic review of the literature on how small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) use and acquire knowledge. The review was undertaken as part of the Economic and Social Research Council's Evolution of Business Knowledge Programme. The paper describes the systematic review protocol and provides a detailed explanation of the methods used. From the review, it is evident that SME knowledge research concentrates primarily on the acquisition and use of knowledge, treating it as an asset that is transferred by routines. The findings suggest that research is focused in three main areas. First, on the influence and abilities of the entrepreneur to extract, use and develop knowledge resources. Secondly, on firm-wide systems and the social capital that facilitates knowledge exploration and exploitation. Thirdly, on the provision of knowledge and learning experiences through government policy. From a practical perspective, the review concludes that policies encouraging entrepreneurship and economic regeneration need to be more flexible and sensitive to the often complex contexts within which knowledge is used by SMEs. From a research perspective, and given the flexible, opportunity-oriented and often novel nature of SMEs identified in these studies, there is a need to consider the relational and embedded qualities of knowledge by which these characteristics are framed; qualities that resist conceptualization as some form of separable, material asset.

Theories of firm growth suggest that managers must resolve sequential crises at key stages. Explicit in these models is the accumulation of resources, including knowledge, which must be applied and (re)configured in order to create new structures and systems in order to overcome the crises at each stage. What these models do not provide is an understanding of how, or why, particular knowledge resources are considered salient, how knowledge is applied, and how changes to systems of application are caused. By re-conceptualizing knowledge not as a resource, but as an activity, this provides an alternative perspective on growth models. This research, conducted in three case study SMEs, and using Activity Theory as a methodological framework, examines how the case companies managed transition and innovation in organizational systems in order to resolve specific crises and facilitate growth. The findings indicate that rather than sequential crises, these firms were dealing with a number of crises concurrently, and solutions were significantly dependent on existing experience and systems of organising, manager's perception of the crises, and access to relevant knowledge. In these firms, growth was dependent on idiosyncratic solutions rather than on any prescriptive approach suggested by traditional growth models.

PurposeTo explore the development of e‐learning within the context of corporate universities with the aim of informing the debate on e‐learning and establishing key areas of concern for emerging corporate universities.Design/methodology/approachThree case reviews of large leading edge organizations in different sectors.FindingsWhilst e‐learning has potential, its success is significantly limited by context which influences the degree of sophistication and integration of e‐learning and its ability to contribute to the corporate university learning processes and outcomes.Research limitations/implicationsFurther research is required on both the learner experience and in the wider evaluation of learning outcomes beyond simple statistical evaluation of participation.Practical implicationsKey areas of difficulty are identified as: the focus on generic e‐learning solutions; the barrier imposed by the base technology level of the organization; the overriding concern for ROI at the expense of learner experiences; and the extent to which pedagogical possibilities are not fully exploited.Originality/valueRaises the often overlooked issues of pedagogy and learner response to e‐learning as inhibitors to the contribution that e‐learning can make to the corporate university.

PurposeThe use of e‐learning in corporate universities enables access and broadens the curriculum. This paper assesses the use and implementation of e‐learning through case material, and explores some of the challenges and emerging concerns.Design/methodology/approachThe paper reviews the corporate university concept and considers how an e‐learning pedagogy might contribute to its success. Three case reviews of e‐learning adoption within corporate universities in the UK are included.FindingsThe paper argues that if corporate universities do not incorporate both the pedagogical and learner preferences perspectives into their use of e‐learning, this will seriously devalue the training experience. It concludes that the advantages of an online pedagogy are not fully exploited due to limitations in technology and other strategic priorities. In addition, a number of lessons have been learned by the pioneers of corporate e‐learning, including the evolutionary nature of the programmes and the need to create “organisational readiness”.Research limitations/implicationsFurther research into the views of learners in this debate is necessary.Originality/valueProvides evidence of the potential of e‐learning as a key learning and development strategy within corporate universities.

The majority of the articles on e-learning inform organizations on the perceived benefits of introducing technology to deliver training programmes. These benefits are primarily regarded as flexibility, cost and breadth of coverage. The disadvantages are largely ignored. The pedagogical debate on e-learning concentrates on the delivery of e-learning within a traditional educational forum and does not examine trends within a corporate environment. This study, which was supported by the University Forum for Human Resource Development, reflects on the directions and experiences of organizations listed in the FTSE 250 that are implementing e-learning. It concludes that the advantages of an online pedagogy are not fully exploited due to limitations in technology and other strategic priorities. In addition, a number of lessons have been learned by the pioneers of corporate e-learning, including the evolutionary nature of the programmes and the need to create ‘organizational readiness’. Further research is essent...

In this paper we examine the technological and organizational innovations which have facilitated rapid growth in a small firm. Evidence from the case suggests that the relational elements of inter-firm transactions provide entrepreneurs with the opportunity to expand their organizational capabilities. The importance of business networks is that they have resources which can supplement internal skills and knowledge. The two owner-directors of RWL have been instrumental in building relationships with suppliers and customers which have benefited all parties. In doing so, they have renewed their own firm's dynamic capabilities by creating a structure and associated routines that focus on opportunity recognition and exploitation. These new capabilities are based on a recognition that competitive advantage can be created by acting as a knowledge-integrator. In that sense, RWL is a knowledge-dependent firm because there is no emphasis on the acquisition of intellectual property rights nor even an attempt to retain knowledge in-house. In pursuing this strategy to achieve growth, the directors have resolved a number of concurrent crises that suggests it is necessary to revisit traditional linear models of firm growth (Greiner, 1972; Churchill and Lewis, 1983).

Studies of entrepreneurial learning have shown a preference for learning from the business context and business relationships. Within this business context, larger organisations are focusing on their supply chains as a significant source of strategic advantage, impacting on the competences required by SMEs to meet expectations. Uses a supply chain competence map to investigate the level to which 39 manufacturing SMEs demonstrate the competences expected by suppliers. The research sample showed a high degree of external and supply chain orientation. Highlight the fact that, given the right support and a willingness to engage with the external business environment, supply chains offer an alternative development opportunity for SMEs. Moreover, it is a learning model that suits their preferred learning style. What is not clear is whether the customer organisations are willing, or able, to support that learning.

This study was designed to evaluate whether hair calcium concentration reflects the mortality from coronary heart disease on a UK-wide basis and to determine the effect — if any — of environmental factors which might affect calcium metabolism on this relationship. The study was based on our earlier findings of an inverse relationship between hair calcium concentration and that in the intima of the aorta and the association of high aorta calcium with severe alterations to the vessel walls which was found never to co-exist with hair calcium concentrations greater than 700 ppm. Hair samples were collected from 4393 males in an ethically approved study in 40 different health districts. These covered the range in known prevalence of heart disease as reflected in the published standardised mortality ratios (SMR). Data on water hardness were obtained from the Water Authorities and on mean annual sunshine hours from the Meteorological Office. Statistical analysis was by regression and multivariate regression techniques. Hair calcium was determined by XRF analysis and the accuracy validated by means of certified reference samples. Significant relationships were found between health district and county SMR and their respective mean hair calcium concentrations accounting for 37 and 55% of their respective variances in SMR. Water hardness and sunshine hours accounted for 39 and 49% of the variance in mortality from CHD. In combination they accounted for 54% of the variance and with the inclusion of hair calcium 65%. South-east England had the highest hair calcium, the hardest water and the most sunshine hours and the lowest mortality from CHD. The converse was true of Scotland. Hair calcium concentration did reflect the risk of CHD on a population basis and was strongly influenced by both the hardness of the water supply and the annual sunshine hours which also independently affected the SMR for CHD.

Objective: To evaluate the ability of designer eggs enriched in vitamin E, lutein, selenium (Se) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) to deliver micronutrients to the human in a palatable and visually acceptable form. Design: Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, two treatment groups balanced for sex and age. Setting: Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, SAC, Scotland. Subjects: Forty healthy adult volunteers completed the study. Volunteers were recruited among staff of the Scottish Agricultural College Interventions: Volunteers consumed, for 8 weeks, either a designer egg or a normal table egg per day. Fasting blood samples were taken before and at the end of the study. Results: Consumption of designer eggs enriched in vitamin E, lutein, Se and DHA significantly increased the levels of α-tocopherol, lutein and DHA in plasma as compared to the changes found after consumption of normal table eggs, with the largest increases found in plasma lutein (1.88-fold increase). The proportion of DHA was increased in all the main lipid classes of the plasma including triacylglycerol (2.3-fold), free fatty acids (1.6-fold), cholesteryl ester (1.4-fold) and phospholipid (1.3-fold). Egg consumption did not change Se concentration in plasma, blood pressure, total plasma lipid concentrations or the concentrations of total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol in plasma. Conclusion: Consumption of designer eggs enriched in vitamin E, lutein, DHA and Se as part of normal diet for 8 weeks effectively increased the blood levels of α-tocopherol, lutein and DHA. Sponsorship: Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment, and Fisheries Department. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 298–305