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Research on work as a calling is gaining momentum, and work-as-a-calling theory is providing a helpful deductive structure to the consistent evidence that people who view their work as a calling and can actively live out that calling usually experience both career-related and general well-being. What is less clear are the key processes that may lead people to perceive a calling in the first place. By bringing work identity into sharper focus, we propose an especially promising framework for constructing a sense of calling, one that uses a cognitive approach. This cognitive approach to eliciting a sense of calling builds on four key work-identity precursors: effort calculation, reflection, appraisal, and fusion. These forward-looking processes are supported by extant research and are promising areas for future research that can illuminate how people may come to perceive a calling.

A demonstration field experiment in a live-radio fund drive shows that women (but not men) primed with moral traits give about 20% more. The authors test one understudied explanation for this finding: gender differences in how market behavior (e.g., giving and supporting a nonprofit) shrinks moral identity discrepancy (i.e., the gap between actual and ideal moral identity). Field Survey 1 demonstrates the basic effect: the less money women (but not men) have historically given on average to a nonprofit, the larger their moral identity discrepancy. Field Experiment 2 shows a managerial implication of this basic effect: when primed with moral identity, women (but not men) who have supported the nonprofit less frequently in the past are more likely to follow an emailed link to help the nonprofit again. Study 3 tests one possible pathway underpinning this finding: even though giving makes women and men experience similar feelings of encouragement and uplift and similar reinforcement of their moral identity, only women with larger prebehavior moral identity discrepancy consequently shrink this discrepancy.

Redox mechanisms are emerging as essential to stem cell function given their capacity to influence a number of important signaling pathways governing stem cell survival and regenerative activity. In this context, our recent work identified the reduced expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2, or Nrf2, in mediating the decline in subventricular zone neural stem progenitor cell (NSPC) regeneration during aging. Since Nrf2 is a major transcription factor at the heart of cellular redox regulation and homeostasis, the current study investigates the role that it may play in the aging of NSPCs that reside within the other major mammalian germinal niche located in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Using rats from multiple aging stages ranging from newborn to old age, and aging Nrf2 knockout mice, we first determined that, in contrast with subventricular zone (SVZ) NSPCs, Nrf2 expression does not significantly affect overall DG NSPC viability with age. However, DG NSPCs resembled SVZ stem cells, in that Nrf2 expression controlled their proliferation and the balance of neuronal versus glial differentiation particularly in relation to a specific critical period during middle age. Also, importantly, this Nrf2-based control of NSPC regeneration was found to impact functional neurogenesis-related hippocampal behaviors, particularly in the Morris water maze and in pattern separation tasks. Furthermore, the enrichment of the hippocampal environment via the transplantation of Nrf2-overexpressing NSPCs was able to mitigate the age-related decline in DG stem cell regeneration during the critical middle-age period, and significantly improved pattern separation abilities. In summary, these results emphasize the importance of Nrf2 in DG NSPC regeneration, and support Nrf2 upregulation as a potential approach to advantageously modulate DG NSPC activity with age.

Supplemental Material, jmr.14.0551-File003 for Marketplace Donations: The Role of Moral Identity Discrepancy and Gender by Jen Shang, Americus Reed, Adrian Sargeant and Kathryn Carpenter in Journal of Marketing Research

It is well established that consumers use their product and brand choices to signal and reinforce identities. More recently, consumer researchers have begun to focus on the dynamic nature of identity. Moving beyond the momentary effect of a given identity on behavior, newer research investigates how a constellation of identities influence each other and how this interface drives long-term consumption and behavioral patterns. Of particular interest are the processes by which an identity becomes strengthened and weakened over time — both in isolation and also with respect to other identities the consumer may hold. We review these psychological processes based on recent consumer research in the areas of memory, emotions, and threats to identity.

A consumer's sense of who they are is complex. In fact, identity is often at the core of how consumers can generate their sense of happiness, meaningfulness and life satisfaction. Perhaps the important insight regarding identity is the idea that if a product, brand, service, or behavior becomes internalized as part of a consumer's sense of identity, then identity loyalty is the result. Think of it as an opportunity to understand that the consumer may think, feel and do different things because that identity is a proscription to guide their judgment and decision making. Understanding different identities may have different and even opposite implications as to how that consumer may behave while they are in that role. What is interesting is that the different identities a consumer may have can become strongly associated with specific attitudes, emotions and behaviors. Marketing managers and public policy advocates should take heed.

This research explores the impact of weight-management remedy marketing on healthy lifestyle behaviors. Three studies demonstrate that exposure to drug (but not supplement) marketing for weight management encourages unhealthy consumer behavior as a result of consumers' reliance on erroneous beliefs about health remedies. The authors explore the possible mitigating role of two dimensions of healthy literacy: nutrition knowledge and remedy knowledge. Whether measured or manipulated, the results show remedy knowledge to be more effective than nutrition knowledge at lessening the effect of weight-management drug marketing on unhealthy behavior. The authors close with a discussion of the theoretical and substantive implications of this research for consumer welfare.

To drum up support for the U.S. military's efforts abroad, government officials sometimes encourage U.S. residents to justify or excuse (morally disengage from) the resultant casualties. Although more disengaged U.S. residents are more supportive of war, two studies show that they are also less supportive of foreign humanitarian aid, particularly when American identity is salient and a more global identity, such as moral identity, is not. Study 1 reveals this effect when residents must choose between donating to a charity that benefits foreign civilians and donating to two other charities, one of which benefits U.S. soldiers. Study 2 shows that the effect holds when the opportunity to support foreign civilians appears in isolation, without reference to war or soldiers. Thus, U.S. residents who respond positively to war may exhibit less charitableness toward foreign civilians. For policy makers seeking to disburse foreign aid during war, these findings suggest that any effort to drum up support for war should be accompanied by a corresponding effort to maintain the U.S. public's goodwill toward foreign civilians.

Following the tenets of the selective accessibility model of assimilation and contrast, three studies observed implicit consumer self-concept assimilation (contrast) to age-based imagery when the discrepancy between the self-concept and advertisement imagery was moderate (extreme). However, these responses were not fully automatic as only consumers who processed user imagery reflectively demonstrated increased accessibility of similarity/dissimilarity information. Impulsive processing of the user imagery instead increased the accessibility of consumer's pre-existing dominant self-age association. A final experiment revealed that these changes in the active-self mediated response to subsequently advertised products. Taken together, these results support a two-systems model of cognition and suggest that assimilation/contrast responses to advertising and subsequent behavior are influenced by the consumer's processing strategy.

A mediation model using a sample of 1059 adolescents (56% girls; M age ¼ 16.02, SD ¼ 1.37) tested relations between parenting, adolescent moral identity, and the formation of psychological distance towards others. In short, adolescent moral identity mediated relations between parenting and the ways in which adolescents oriented others in their psychological space. Specifically, adolescent-report parenting style dimensions (responsiveness, autonomy-granting, and demandingness) were positively related to the formation of both private and public moral identity dimensions (internalization and symbolization), which were in turn associated with a tendency to construct psychological distance towards others (negatively with social dominance orientation and positively with the circle of moral regard). Therefore, one way parents may be able to influence how adolescents relate to their peers is by fostering a sense of moral identity in their children through authoritative parenting. 2009 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by

This article proposes and tests a social-cognitive framework for examining the joint influence of situational factors and the centrality of moral identity on moral intentions and behaviors. The authors hypothesized that if a situational factor increases the current accessibility of moral identity within the working self-concept, then it strengthens the motivation to act morally. In contrast, if a situational factor decreases the current accessibility of moral identity, then it weakens the motivation to act morally. The authors also expected the influence of situational factors to vary depending on the extent to which moral identity was central to a person's overall self-conception. Hypotheses derived from the framework were tested in 4 studies. The studies used recalling and reading a list of the Ten Commandments (Study 1), writing a story using morally laden terms (Study 4), and the presence of performance-based financial incentives (Studies 2 and 3) as situational factors. Participants' willingness to initiate a cause-related marketing program (Study 1), lie to a job candidate during a salary negotiation (Studies 2 and 3), and contribute to a public good (Study 4) were examined. Results provide strong support for the proposed framework.

Two studies investigated the psychometric properties of a self-report measure of commonly recognized forms of aggression (FOA) that could be used to efficiently gather aggression data in large samples. EFA and CFA in Study 1 suggested that a five-factor model (Physical, Property, Verbal, Relational, and Passive—Rational) best represented the data across high school and college students. However, factor analyses in Study 2 using an ethnically diverse university sample revealed a four-factor solution (combining Physical and Property items). As a confirmation of the construct validity of FOA, physical and property aggression were lower, and verbal and passive—rational aggression were higher in college versus high school students. Gender differences were observed across FOA subscales, except relational aggression. FOA subscales correlated as expected with other anger and personality scales. Overall, the data revealed adequate psychometric properties for the FOA and suggest that current category distinctions (e.g., direct—indirect) may not adequately account for different forms of aggression. Researchers may want to reevaluate these categories.

This research investigates consumer reactions to the marketing of drugs and supplements and the consequences for a healthy lifestyle. A series of experiments provides evidence that drug marketing undermines intentions to engage in health-protective behaviors (i.e., a boomerang effect). The boomerang arises from two psychological mechanisms: (1) drugs reduce risk perceptions and perceived importance of, and motivation to engage in, complementary health-protective behaviors, and (2) drugs are associated with poor health that reduces self-efficacy and perceived ability to engage in complementary health-protective behaviors. A combined intervention accompanying a drug remedy that targets both motivation and ability mitigates the drug boomerang on a healthy lifestyle.

Two studies examine the extent to which moral identity and moral disengagement jointly drive reactions to war. Study 1 finds support for a hypothesized positive relationship between moral disengagement and the perceived morality of a highly punitive response to the perpetuators of the September 11th attacks. It also finds that this effect was eliminated for participants who place high self-importance on their moral identities. Study 2 finds that moral disengagement effectively reduced the extent to which participants experienced negative emotions in reaction to abuses of Iraqi detainees by American soldiers; however, the effectiveness of moral disengagement was negated when participants’ moral identities were primed.

In several studies, the authors examine the potential to leverage a consumer's moral identity to enhance brand and company identification and promote goodwill through community relations. Studies 1a and 1b show that even when opportunity costs are equivalent (subjectively or economically), consumers who also have a highly self-important moral identity perceive the act of giving time versus money as more moral and self-expressive. The authors extend these findings to self-reported preferences and establish boundary conditions in two additional studies. Consumers with higher organizational status prefer to give money versus time, but this preference is weaker for those with a highly self-important moral identity (Study 2), and the preference for giving time versus money is more likely to emerge when the moral self is primed and the time given has a moral purpose (Study 3).

Four studies show that moral identity reduces people's aversion to giving time-particularly as the psychological costs of doing so increase. In Study 1, we demonstrate that even when the cost of time and money are held equivalent, a moral cue enhances the expected self-expressivity of giving time-especially when it is given to a moral cause. We found that a moral cue reduces time aversion even when giving time was perceived to be unpleasant (Study 2), or when the time to be given was otherwise seen to be scarce (Study 3). Study 4 builds on these studies by examining actual giving while accounting for the real costs of time. In this study, we found that the chronic salience of moral identity serves as a buffer to time aversion, specifically as giving time becomes increasingly costly. These findings are discussed in terms of the time-versus-money literature and the identity literature. We also discuss policy implications for prosocial cause initiatives. (PsycINFO Database Record

The negative reciprocity norm (NRN) is the personal moral code specifying retaliation as a proper response to wrongdoing (Eisenberger, Lynch, Aselage, & Rohdieck, 2004). We examined the role of negative reciprocity in interpreting and reacting to the prison abuses at Abu Ghraib. Results showed that people who believed that American soldiers behaved wrongly at Abu Ghraib were more likely to view punishing the soldiers responsible as a highly moral response and were less likely to contribute money to a charitable organization that helps American soldiers. These relationships were only present among those highly endorsing the negative reciprocity norm.

The Multiple Pathway Anchoring and Adjustment (MPAA) model integrates prior research on attitude formation, accessibility, strength, and attitude-behavior relationships and responds to key challenges to the traditional view of attitudes as enduring predispositions that guide behavior. The MPAA model emphasizes multiple pathways to attitude formation, including outside-in (object-centered) and inside-out (person-centered) pathways. The model also provides a nonoverlapping cognitions rationale for the coexistence of competing attitudes. The MPAA model introduces two subjective assessment criteria (representational and functional sufficiency) to explain how an anchoring and adjustment process functions to permit attitudes to guide behavior.

This paper examines evaluative judgments about an African-American beneficiary of affirmative action (AA) in two studies. Based on a motivated social cognition model, we test whether the use of AA, social dominance orientation (SDO), and job status jointly influence judgments about the future job performance and career progression of an AA beneficiary. In a sample of 244 undergraduate business students, Study 1 showed that SDO and AA interact to predict job-related performance expectations, and AA and job status interact to predict career progression expectations. Study 2 used a different sample of 190 business undergraduates to test whether the effects of AA, job status, SDO and their interactions on evaluative judgments is mediated by stereotype application. Results showed that different dimensions of stereotypes mediated the relationships between SDO, job status and the AA × SDO interaction.

In today's multicultural societies, ethnic targeting is an increasingly important marketing strategy. Two main approaches to target ethnic minorities have emerged in recent years: messaging consumers when their ethnic identity is most salient, and doing so with spokespeople or models with the same heritage as the targeted minority. In this paper, we conduct conceptual replications of two influential articles representative of these research streams: Forehand and Deshpande (2001) and Deshpande and Stayman (1994). Our studies show that the effects of such practices on minority consumers are not homogeneous. The findings identify generational status (first vs. second generation) as an important boundary condition for these ethnic targeting strategies. This has important conceptual and practical implications for choosing an effective ethnic targeting strategy.

Two studies support the usefulness of susceptibility to normative influence (SNI) as a predictor of protective self-presentation—efforts to avoid undesirable or assailable self-presentations that may lead to disapproval. Study 1 finds that high SNI consumers are especially concerned about avoiding negative impressions in public settings. They respond more favorably to protective messages than do their low SNI counterparts, but only when the messages pertain to conspicuous benefits. Study 2 suggests that SNI is inversely related to individuals' tendencies to exaggerate similarities to their “ought” selves and their willingness to portray themselves more favorably than others. Overall, these findings suggest that high SNI consumers are averse to calling attention to themselves, especially when doing so may lead to disapproval.

This research examines the perseverance of identity-based judgments by exploring the effectiveness of various corrective procedures that are intended to neutralize identity effects on judgment. The authors explore these effects in a series of studies that involve different kinds of identities (e.g., parent, teenager, businessperson, environmentalist) linked to different objects and issues (e.g., Internet censorship, pollution credits, electronic books). Moreover, they test the effectiveness of various corrective procedures, including feature-based analysis, counterfactual reasoning, counteridentification, and social influence. The authors find that identity-driven thinking leads to judgment that resists change, that is, a procedural bias or “sticky prior” in favor of an initial identity-based judgment. The findings attest to both the power of identity and the efficacy of analytic and nonanalytic corrective techniques.

Two studies examine the identity salience construct in a judgment formation context. Study 1 manipulates identity salience by heightening the self-importance of a consumer social identity, resulting in systematic changes in purchase intent of an identity relevant product. Study 2 shows that judgments of identity relevant stimuli are a function of exposure to an identity cue and the consumer's measured self-importance associated with the identity, particularly when the identity is diagnostic to the judgment. These results are discussed in terms of how they extend prior work on social identity, product preference formation, and attitude change.

Psychology's study of the self-concept has generated numerous paradigms with different underlying assumptions. In this article it is argued that these assumptions must be considered before a self-concept paradigm can be meaningfully applied to consumer research. The major premise in this article is that the recent work on social identity is a particularly meaningful paradigm to adopt for consumer research that implicates the self. This argument is developed with a conceptual discussion of major self-concept issues, an overview of basic self-concept paradigms in psychology, and a synthesis of possible factors that may be considered in future theories of social-identity–based consumption decision making. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recent theorizing in moral psychology extends rationalist models by calling attention to social and cultural influences (J. Haidt, 2001). Six studies using adolescents, university students, and adults measured the associations among the self-importance of moral identity, moral cognitions, and behavior. The psychometric properties of the measure were assessed through an examination of the underlying factor structure (Study 1) and convergent, nomological, and discriminant validity analyses (Studies 2 and 3). The predictive validity of the instrument was assessed by examinations of the relationships among the self-importance of moral identity, various psychological outcomes, and behavior (Studies 4, 5, and 6). The results are discussed in terms of models of moral behavior, social identity measurement, and the need to consider moral self-conceptions in explaining moral conduct.

This study investigates groups' ability to manage resources under high and low scarcity. We offer a contingency model to reconcile competing predictions in the literature: Cooperative group behavior is moderated by group communication and the distribution of resources. A sample of 208 undergraduate students role-played I of 4 "division managers" in a fictional organization. They made independent organizational resource withdrawal decisions. Three independent variables were manipulated: (a) level of resource replenishment, (b) group communication prior to decision making, and (c) access to the resource. Our findings indicated strong support for the hypothesized effect of communication and moderate support for the effect of resource distribution. Results suggest that a decline in scarcity increases cooperation only when groups are allowed to communicate and when there is equal access to resources. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for group behavior in organizations are discussed, and future directions for research are offered.

This article examines how others’ opinions can influence a consumer's evaluation of a product. This influence is said to be informational when the consumer accepts it as evidence of the product's true nature. An anchoring and adjustment process is proposed to explain how information from others is combined with direct experience when consumers form a global evaluation of a product. Two experiments are conducted to test this explanation. Findings from the two experiments suggest that when others offer their opinions about the quality of a product, the opinions have the most potential to influence a consumer who has tried the product when the opinions are considered before the consumer considers the evaluative implications of his or her own product experience. Findings from a third experiment suggest that others’ opinions about product quality have limited potential to influence a consumer who has had an unambiguous experience with the product, even when conditions are most favorable for an influence to occur. The 3 experiments suggest that informational social influence obeys information processing principles associated with other kinds of private judgments.

Park and MacInnis (2006, in this issue) provide the always sound advice to examine the boundaries of the focal construct, in this case attitudes. They wonder whether attitudes are capable of predicting differences in levels of personal investment and commitment to resulting behavior, and they question whether attitude dimensions such as strength and extremity, or additional dimensions and moderators, are rich enough to account for either the range of affect intensity reflected in the degree of emotional attachment or in behavioral commitment. They draw our attention to consumers’ emotional attachment to brands (which they see as inherently linked to one’s self-schema) and argue for a sharper delineation of the boundaries of the attitude construct. Their analysis suggests that emotional attachment is a separate relationship-based construct. Several reactions seem in order. First, we do not suggest that attitude theory can explain emotional attachment and its consequences (see also Cohen [1990], Cohen and Areni [1991], and Pham et al. [2001] for consistent attempts to separate attitudinal and affective processes). In creating the Multiple Pathway Anchoring and Adjustment (MPAA) model, we draw on relevant cognitive and motivational theory and research to better understand both attitude formation and the conditions under which attitudes are likely to guide behavior. Attitudes arise out of a range of human experience extending from direct experience and exposure to internal*Cohen and Reed’s (2006, in this issue) MPAA model describes the attitude formation and reliance process. We thank the notable contributors for their insightful commentaries about our model and attitude theory and research more generally. Since we cannot respond to all the nuances outlined in each of the four separate articles, we primarily address some important differences in the commentators’ views about parsimony. The spirit of our response is intended to convince readers that when it comes to representing psychological processes, there is no one right model. Rather, the construct mapping one uses and related judgments about parsimony should depend on explicit research goals. Joel B. Cohen is Distinguished

Although the influence of identity on consumer behavior has been documented in many streams of literature, the absence of a consistent definition of identity and of generally accepted principles regarding the drivers of identity-based behavior complicates comparisons across these literatures. To resolve that problem, we propose a simple but inclusive definition of identity. Identity can be defined as any category label with which a consumer selfassociates that is amenable to a clear picture of what a person in that category looks like, thinks, feels and does. Building from this definition, we propose the following five basic principles that can help researchers model the process of identity formation and expression: (1) Identity Salience: identity processing increases when the identity is an active component of the self; (2) Identity Association: the non-conscious association of stimuli with a positive and salient identity improves a person’s response to the stimuli; (3) Identity Relevance: the deliberative evaluation of identity-linked stimuli depends on how diagnostic the identity is in the relevant domain; (4) Identity Verification: individuals monitor their own behaviors to manage and reinforce their identities; and (5) Identity Conflict: identity-linked behaviors help consumers manage the relative prominence of multiple identities. To illustrate the potential usefulness of these principles for guiding identity research, we discuss new avenues for identity research and explain how these principles could help guide investigations into these areas.

This is the authors’ final, accepted and refereed manuscript to the article Although the influence of identity on consumer behavior has been documented in many streams of literature, the absence of a consistent definition of identity and of generally accepted principles regarding the drivers of identity-based behavior complicates comparisons across these literatures. To resolve that problem, we propose a simple but inclusive definition of identity. Identity can be defined as any category label with which a consumer self-associates that is amenable to a clear picture of what a person in that category looks like, thinks, feels and does. Building from this definition, we propose the following five basic principles that can help researchers model the process of identity formation and expression: (1) Identity Salience: identity processing increases when the identity is an active component of the self; (2) Identity Association: the non-conscious association of stimuli with a positive and salient identity improves a person’s response to the stimuli; (3) Identity Relevance: the deliberative evaluation of identity-linked stimuli depends on how diagnostic the identity is in the relevant domain; (4) Identity Verification: individuals monitor their own behaviors to manage and reinforce their identities; and (5) Identity Conflict: identity-linked behaviors help consumers manage the relative prominence of multiple identities. To illustrate the potential usefulness of these principles for guiding identity research, we discuss new avenues for identity research and explain how these principles could help guide investigations into these areas.

We examined the role of stress exposure on gender differences in hostile (emotional and behavioral) reactions within the context of a laboratory paradigm. Aggressive behavior was indexed via the intensity (overt) and the duration (covert) of putative shocks delivered to a confederate. Half of the participants were exposed to a chronic stressor (high stress) and half were not (low stress). Participants' emotional responses were measured via self-report mood ratings before and after the experiment. Men displayed higher aggression in both stress conditions, which corresponded to their ratings of state hostility. On the other hand, women in high stress delivered lower intensity shocks, and this decreased overt aggression was positively correlated with sadness ratings. However, women did not decrease their levels of shock duration (covert aggression) under high stress and showed equivalent shock duration compared with men in high stress. These findings are discussed in terms of differential overt manifestations of distress between men and women.

This article examines moral identity and reactions to out-groups during intergroup conflict. Four studies suggest that a highly self-important moral identity is associated with an expansive circle of moral regard toward out-group members (Study 1) and more favorable attitudes toward relief efforts to aid out-group members (Study 2). Study 3 examines moral identity and national identity influences on the provision of financial assistance to out-groups. Study 4 investigates the relationship between moral identity and (a) the willingness to harm innocent out-group members not involved in the conflict and (b) moral judgments of revenge and forgiveness toward out-group members directly responsible for transgressions against the in-group. Results are discussed in terms of self-regulatory mechanisms that mitigate in-group favoritism and out-group hostility.

This paper examines how identity primes and social distinctiveness influence identity salience (i.e., the activation of a social identity within an individual's social self-schema) and subsequent responses to targeted advertising. Across two studies, individuals who were exposed to an identity prime (an ad element that directs attention to the individual's social identity) and who were socially distinctive (minorities in the immediate social context) expressed systematically different evaluations of spokespersons and the advertisements that featured them. Specifically, Asian (Caucasian) participants responded most positively (negatively) to Asian spokespeople and Asian-targeted advertising when the participants were both primed and socially distinctive. No main effects of identity primes or social distinctiveness were found. The implications of these findings for identity theory, advertising practice and intervention communications are discussed.

What reasoning processes do consumers use to support public figures who act immorally? Existing research emphasizes moral rationalization, whereby people reconstrue improper behavior in order to maintain support for a transgressor. In contrast, the current research proposes that people also engage in moral decoupling, a previously unstudied moral reasoning process by which judgments of performance are separated from judgments of morality. By separating these judgments, moral decoupling allows consumers to support a transgressor's performance while simultaneously condemning his or her transgressions. Five laboratory studies demonstrate that moral decoupling exists and is psychologically distinct from moral rationalization. Moreover, because moral decoupling does not involve condoning immoral behavior, it is easier to justify than moral rationalization. Finally, a field study suggests that in discussions involving public figures’ transgressions, moral decoupling may be more predictive of consumer support (and opposition) than moral rationalization.