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Pediatric obesity has become a growing global epidemic which has negative health consequences, including for South African children. This study aimed to determine the immediate and sustainable influences of a 9-week movement program on the body composition of 7 to 8-year-old school children in a rural area of South Africa. A two group, pre-test, post-test and re-test after six months experimental design was used to compare anthropometric measurements of the intervention group (IG) and control group (CG). Ninety-three schoolchildren (IG = 57; CG = 36) participated in the study. A 9-week movement program was followed twice a week for 30 min during school hours with an emphasis on improving BMI. Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) was used to analyze the data with time, sex and group as predictors. Effect sizes was computed based on the Cohen’s d to assess the practical significance of findings. The intervention positively changed the waist circumference. The subscapular skinfold and BMI showed statistical and practically significant sustainable changes because of the intervention, although gender influenced these effects. School based movement interventions, focusing on improving fundamental movement skills (FMS), have the potential to contribute to a healthier BMI, skinfold thickness and circumferences among young children.

Badenhorst, J, Pienaar, AE, and Gerber, BP. The effect of the growth spurt on training of strength and power during mid-adolescence in boys. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2193-2204, 2021-This study determined if the growth spurt will influence the training of strength and power in boys (N = 86) of differing maturity levels. Based on a 2-group, pretest posttest design within a 2 school-year follow-up period, including 4 time point measurements, an experimental group (EG), who participated in different school sports were subjected to an additional 6 months, strength and power training program, twice a week for 45 minutes over 2 consecutive years (n = 47, 13.67 ± 0.26 years). They were compared with boys (n = 39, 13.68 ± 0.16 years) serving as a control group (CG) for normal growth who did not compete in any sports or training programs. Both EG and CG were subdivided into 3 maturity groups, late developers (LD), early developers, and typical developers (TD) based on a linear growth rate. Assessments were performed every 6 months for changes in height, body mass, strength, and power. Differences within and between the EG, CG, and maturity groups were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance and hierarchical linear modeling, whereas significance of practical differences were determined by effect sizes (d). Early developers presented with training effects, whereas TD and LD showed conditioning and adaptation responses to training. Customized training to leverage the different maturation levels in a way to optimize strength and power advancement is important for the preparation of boys for sports participation during mid-adolescence because it can positively affect adaptation and responsiveness to training in boys of different maturity levels.

Previous research has reported higher percentages of at-risk development among children growing up in low-resourced communities, especially in perceptual-motor abilities. Such deficits can seriously hamper the acquisition of early literacy and numeracy necessary for formal school entry, while compromising the health and well-being of pre-schoolers due to physical inactivity. This study investigated whether pre-school teachers from a low resourced community, with no experience in conducting perceptual motor development programmes, can successfully implement a tailor-made intervention after a training workshop. By understanding the limitations that teachers have to design and deliver perceptual-motor programmes to pre-school children, possible solutions can be found to overcome the barriers and to maximise the perceptual-motor development of such children. Teachers presented a tailor-made perceptual-motor programme to 3- to 5-year-old preschoolers (n=44) after receiving a two-day training. The participants were, divided into an intervention group (n=31) that participated in the programme once a week for 16 weeks, and compared during a pre-, post- and retention test with a control group (n=21), using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2). Monthly on-site monitoring visits, as well as a focus group reflection after completing the programme, were used to identify problems that the teachers experienced during programme delivery. Data were analysed using thematic analysis and ANOVA (analysis of variance). Limited intervention effects were found. Although teacher buy-in was reported, many challenges were experienced, mainly due to the teachers’ low knowledge of the subject matter. Frequent and ongoing hands-on support by means of remedial support is essential, while also focusing on establishing key behaviours of effective programme delivery during training.

BACKGROUND Obesity and hypertension prevalence among children are a concern, with limited evidence available on sex and ethnic differences in childhood blood pressure. We aimed to determine the number of children with hypertension and obesity to identify unique adiposity and blood pressure characteristics by sex and ethnicity, and to estimate the odds of having elevated blood pressure with increasing adiposity. METHODS We included 1062 healthy children (5-9 years of age) in an observational school-based study in South Africa. Pediatric validated automated devices were used to measure brachial blood pressure and performed pulse wave analysis to assess central hemodynamics. Standard anthropometry was carried out to determine body composition and demographic questionnaires were completed. RESULTS Almost 20% of children were overweight/obese and 14.1% had elevated blood pressure or hypertension (22.8%). Ethnic differences included greater adiposity in white compared with black children (all P

Adequate development of Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) at a young age benefit holistic development and positive health outcomes. This study determined age and sex developmental differences in the state and the relationships between process and product assessments of four fundamental-motor skills (FMS) in five to eight-year-olds. An availability sample of 636 children; 291 boys, 345 girls, mean age of 6.8 ± 0.97 years in the North West Province of South Africa participated in the study. Spearman rank order correlations analyzed relationships between assessments, while sex and age differences were examined using independent t-testing and one-way ANOVA. Age showed significant developmental trajectories in all FMS. Older children were found to be more at risk for not learning FMS to mastery, while unique developmental patterns were also established compared to international trends. Strong to moderate significant practical associations (p < 0.05) emerged between process and product assessments in catching (r = 0.79), jumping (r = 0.40) running (r = −0.33) and kicking (r = 0.20), while also confirming that the strength of the associations varies depending upon the skill type. Associations strengthened with increasing age, were higher in girls in all FMS, while associations between behavioral criteria in all FMS also differed between FMS and sexes. These strong associations, need to be taken into consideration during the development of FMS towards obtaining full mastery.

Puberty and the onset of menarche influences the motor performance of girls. However, the magnitude of these influences during varying maturity status, is not clear. This longitudinal study over two years aimed to investigate differences in motor fitness between early and late developing girls based on pre- and post-menarche status. A convenience sample (N = 58) of girls aged 13.51 ± 3.51, divided by means of the Status Quo method into pre (n = 13) and post-menarche (n = 45) groups, was used. Motor fitness was tested once annually by standardized protocols. Basic statistics, independent t-testing and a repeated measures ANOVA with a post hoc Bonferonni correction were used (p &lt, 0.05 = statistical significance). Effect sizes were determined by Cohen’s d-values. Only explosive upper body strength differed significantly between groups during baseline, favoring post-menarche girls. Initially, post-menarche girls showed advantages in hand-eye coordination and speed (p &gt, 0.05) with pre-menarche girls performing better in agility and explosive leg strength (p &gt, 0.05). At 15.51 years, no significant, between-group differences were found. Pre-menarche girls surpassed post-menarche girls in hand-eye coordination and 0–40 m speed and post-menarche girls displayed higher explosive leg and upper body strength scores (p &gt, 0.05). Our data show that the potential to excel in sport based on motor capabilities can only be accurately estimated 1–2 years after reaching menarche.

The level of competency in object control skills (OCSs) during early childhood is considered to be a possible determinant of the successful generalization of these skills during later childhood. This study aimed to determine if an association exists between competency in object control skills during early childhood (6–9 years) and the application of these skills during later childhood (12 years). The NW-CHILD longitudinal study (2010–2016), included a baseline and two time-point follow-up measures in grades 1, 4, and 7 of South African children. A total of 374 participants (boys = 178, 47.59% and girls = 196, 52.41%) completed testing at all three time-points and were analyzed. The Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition, and the Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment were used to determine associations between object control skill competency during early and later childhood by using descriptive statistics, Spearman rank order correlations, and stepwise regression analysis. The level of object control skill competency at 6 and 9 years, significantly influences the application of these skills at 12 years. A high overall and significant contribution of OCS (4.6%, p &lt, 0.01) to the variance in the skills and time scores at 12 years, p &lt, 0.05 were found. Competence in object control skills at an early age can provide a baseline from where opportunities for progression or transfer of skills can result in more advanced skillful executions which consequently can be considered to be a cornerstone of improved future physical activity and healthier lifestyles.

Background Overweight can be a precursor of poor motor execution, negatively impacting the overall development of school-aged children on various levels. This study determined the long-term influences of overweight on perceptual-motor proficiency (PMP) of primary school children in the North-West Province of South Africa. Methods The study, which included 381 participants, formed part of the NW-CHILD longitudinal study from Grade 1 (6.86 years, ± 0.39) in 2010 to Grade 7 (12.9 years, ± 0.38) in 2016. Socioeconomic categories, called quintiles, were used to compare high and low socioeconomic status groups. Overweight was identified when BMI values fell above the 85th percentile, using age- and gender-specific cut-off points. The group was categorised into 4 BMI groups (never overweight, persistent overweight, overweight-to-normal and normal-to-overweight). The Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) Short Form and selected composites measuring strength, balance, and running speed and agility were used to assess PMP. Results A repeated measures ANOVA analysis indicated specific PMP differences between different BMI groups, but not total motor proficiency (BOT-2 Short Form total) differences. Practical significant group differences (Cohen’s d-values) were found in running speed and agility, strength, balance and the BOT-2 total, over seven primary school years. The persistent overweight group showed the poorest performance over time, but also showed deteriorating skills and a gradual widening in perceptual-motor skills performance, compared to the other groups. BMI-related differences in perceptual-motor coordination were also more pronounced in older age groups. Conclusions Persistent overweight negatively impacts specific motor-proficiency components, while improving weight status can counter these effects, which highlights the importance of timeous intervention to combat obesity at a young age.

Overweight and obesity contribute to multiple health risks in children, while also impacting negatively on educational performance. Physical fitness can impact outcomes beyond health related measures therefore it can play a mediating role in combating the negative effects of being overweight.One hundred and seventy-two primary school girls aged 6-13 years old from the North West Province of South Africa formed part of this random stratified longitudinal research design in which three follow-up measurements took place over seven years. Body Mass Index was used to compile obesity profiles, while the progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) was used to determine cardiovascular fitness. Academic school achievements for grades 1, grade 4 and grade 7, as well as national and provincial values were correlated with academic performance. Data were analyzed by a repeated measure over time ANOVA as well using a latent growth curve model from the structural equation modelling framework (SEM).No differences (P0.05) were found in the academic performance of obese and normal weight girls, although obese girls showed poorer physical fitness values (P0.05). The SEM model was a good fit for all requirements (RMSEA, 0.60; CMIN DF, 2.837; CFI, 0.966). VOinf2/infmax had a standardized indirect mediation effect (-132) while body composition showing a standardized direct effect (0.183) with academic achievement. Physical fitness showed a mediation effect with regard to obesity and academic achievement in grade 7 girls.Although the academic performance of obese girls did not show impairment before the age of 12 years, physical fitness had a reversible effect on relationships between obesity and academic achievement. This substantial influence of physical fitness should be used strategically in preventive intervention programs necessary to enhance cognitive functioning, academic performance and brain health among overweight children.

Background: In December 2018, the South African 24-hour movement guidelines for birth to 5 years were released. This article describes the process used to develop these guidelines. Methods: The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation-ADOLOPMENT approach was followed, with some pragmatic adaptions, using the Australian guidelines for the early years as a starting point. A consensus panel, including stakeholders in early childhood development and academics, was formed to assist with the development process. Results: At a face-to-face meeting of the panel, global and local literatures were considered. Following this meeting, a first draft of the guidelines (including a preamble) was formulated. Further reviews of these drafts by the panel were done via e-mail, and a working draft was sent out for stakeholder consultation. The guidelines and preamble were amended based on stakeholder input, and an infographic was designed. Practical “tips” documents were also developed for caregivers of birth to 5-year-olds and early childhood development practitioners. The guidelines (and accompanying documents) were released at a launch event and disseminated through various media channels. Conclusions: These are the first movement guidelines for South African and the first such guidelines for this age group from a low- and middle-income country.

Background: Inconsistencies are found regarding the relationship between academic achievement and visual-motor integration (VMI), gender and socio-economic status (SES). Aim: The study examined the associations between academic achievement in different compulsory learning areas and VMI skills, and what role gender and SES play. Setting: A total of 863 participants ( n = 538, low SES group; n = 325, high SES group) from 20 schools in four school districts in the North West province of South Africa were randomly selected to participate. Methods: The Beery Visual-Motor Integration Test, 4th edition (VMI-4) was used to evaluate the VMI, visual perception and motor coordination skills; and the June mid-year school assessment (JMSA) and the Annual National Assessment (ANA) marks were used to examine their academic achievements. Spearman rank-order correlations and stepwise regression analyses were used to, examine significant associations and unique contributors, respectively. Results: Small-to-moderate significant correlations were found between all the learning areas assessed during the JMSA and the ANA examinations and the VMI-4. The strongest correlations occurred between visual perception and most of the learning areas. Socio-economic status had the greatest predictive association with most of the academic learning areas. The largest contributions (≥ 10% moderate, ≥ 25% great) of SES were found during the JMSA in English, life orientation, mathematics, natural science, social sciences and in the grade point averages. During the ANA, SES had the highest predictive contribution to English and mathematics. Conclusion: The overall academic achievement of learners could be negatively affected by their SES and visual perception skills, that suggest timeously prevention strategies to counter these effects.

Motor proficiency and socioeconomic status are considered critical role players in setting children on an early trajectory of academic failure or success. To determine longitudinal influences of motor proficiency (MP) and socioeconomic status (SES) on academic achievement of primary school learners, a mediating model was constructed and tested with structural equation modelling (SEM). Primary school learners (N = 381) took part in this 7 school year NW-CHILD longitudinal study, with baseline measurements in grade 1 and follow-up measurements in grades 4 and 7. Academic achievement was based on school, national, and provincial assessments, and the Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) assessed MP. SES was operationalized as poverty classification which was based on school SES. Significant small to moderate correlations (r = .19 to r = .36) were confirmed between early MP and later academic achievement, with impaired academic achievement and MP (p

Poor socio-economic status contributes to undernutrition which, in turn, can increase the risk of academic underachievement. This study wants to determine if stunting, being underweight, and thinness show long term relations with academic performance in primary school girls aged 6 to 13 in the North West province of South Africa. A randomized and stratified longitudinal research design including a baseline and two time-point measurements over seven school years was used. The sample included girls aged 6 to 13 years (N = 198) in the North West province of South Africa. Academic performance in the June school assessments and national and provincial assessments in grades 1, 4, and 7 were used to determine academic performance. Independent t-testing was used to determine differences between thinness, underweight and stunted girls as opposed to a reference group with no undernutrition indices. A repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc Bonferroni adjustment analyzed relations over time. Normal weight girls significantly outperformed stunted girls academically (p &lt, 0.05) over time. Stunting had prolonged and significant negative influences on language, mathematics, and grade point average (p &lt, 0.05). Early identification of undernutrition, especially stunting, is important for intervention and the implementation of timely prevention strategies, especially during early childhood years.

Background: One of the risks associated with low physical activity levels is the insufficient development of motor proficiency, which in turn has an impact on participation in physical activity and sport during adolescence. Objectives: To determine the relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity levels in adolescent Senior Phase learners in Potchefstroom, South Africa. No literature exists on the relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity levels among South African adolescents. Method: A total of 239 13- to 14-year-old learners were assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2) for motor proficiency, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) for physical activity levels. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Spearman correlation coefficients and effect sizes. Results: Statistically and practically significant correlations were found between the total BOT-2 score and the physical activity levels of the total group, as well as the boys and the girls respectively. Fine motor coordination correlated with physical activity levels in the girls, while manipulation coordination correlated with the physical activity levels of the total group and the boys. The body coordination skill of jumping in place and the strength test items showed strong correlations with physical activity in all the groups. Conclusion: The motor skills of Senior Phase learners, especially coordination and strength skills, should be developed and maintained in the Physical Education curriculum to enhance physical activity levels. Keywords: Motor proficiency, Physical activity, Fundamental movement skills, Adolescents, Senior Phase learners

Background: Motor competence is emerging as an important marker of health, while adequate basic movement patterns, body control and body awareness are important building blocks of more specialized body movements and scholastic adjustment during early childhood. This study examined fundamental movement skill competency and explored sex differences in 6-year-old children. Method: A convenience sample (N = 72, 35 boys, 37 girls, 6.3 years) was assessed cross-sectionally, using both qualitative and quantitative methods of assessing locomotor (8), object control (4), stability (6), body awareness (3), and body coordination skills (3). Results: Descriptive statistics, frequency tables and independent t-testing (p ≤ .05) indicated that overall body coordination and throwing skills showed poor mastery. Sex differences favouring girls were found in rope jumping, one-legged balancing, hopping and body awareness (p

Visual perception plays an important and integrating role in the development of cognitive abilities and perceptual-motor skills. Visual perception comprises different independent constructs that may function in an integrative manner. This study aimed to determine whether (and the extent to which) various visual-perceptual constructs influence the academic achievement of 12-year-old school children. In a cross-sectional analysis, we extracted only 2016 data from 581 learners (mean age = 12.92 years, SD = 0.42) who were participants in the North-West Child Health, Integrated with Learning and Development longitudinal study (2010–2016). We used the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills, Third Edition, the North-West Provincial Assessment and mid-year school examination reports to determine visual perceptual abilities and academic achievement of this participant group. We calculated correlations between visual perceptual constructs and academic performance using Spearman rank order correlations and separately analyzed the influence of gender and socioeconomic status with independent T tests. Different visual perceptual constructs did have significant influences on specific areas of academic learning and on academic achievement generally ( r = .26 to r = .41). Spatial relationships showed slightly greater correlations with academic achievement ( r = .15 to r = .33) than did other basic visual perceptual constructs, possibly because spatial relationships are not completely developed at age 12. Complex and basic visual perceptual skills had medium significant retrospective correlations with grade point average ( r = .40 and r = .41) and first additional language ( r = .30 and r = .33). We concluded that basic and complex visual perceptual constructs remain important for academic achievement in this age-group, while gender and socioeconomic status influence both visual perceptual abilities and academic achievement.

Background: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) has a negative impact on everyday activities and academic achievement in children, mainly owing to similar underlying motor and cognitive constructs. Academic achievement of boys and girls seems to be different, with boys being more prone to academic backlogs, especially in language-related areas. Aim: This study investigated if boys with DCD displayed more academic problems than girls with DCD. Setting: Ten-year-old children ( N = 221, ±0.41) from different economic backgrounds were randomly selected for assessment as part of the NW-CHILD (North-West Child Health, Integrated with Learning and Development) longitudinal study in the North West Province of South Africa. Methods: The Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition, was used to determine DCD status in the group. The results of the Annual National Assessment and the mid-year June exam, which included six learning areas, were used to analyse academic differences between typically developing boys and girls and those who were identified with DCD (seven boys, seven girls). Independent t -testing and Mann–Whitney non-parametric tests were used to determine differences between boys and girls. Results: Boys with DCD had inferior literacy and numeracy skills, significantly poorer manual dexterity and balancing skills and also displayed statistically and large practically significant weaker mid-year grade point averages than girls. Children with DCD also portrayed poorer academic achievement than typically developing children. Conclusion: Significant differences in balancing skills and in languages between boys and girls with DCD might have contributed to the practically significant poorer maths performance of boys.

Background: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) portray motor coordination and perceptual difficulties which can hamper daily activity and academic task execution. Aim: This study examined the association between DCD and academic performance, and explored which perceptual and motor coordination skills had the largest contribution to academic performance. Setting: Ten-year-old children ( N = 221, 10.05 years + 0.41 standard deviation) who formed part of the North-West Child Health, Integrated with Learning and Development (NW-CHILD) longitudinal study in South Africa were randomly selected to participate. Methods: Motor coordination, visual-motor integration and academic achievement were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 , the Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-4 , and national and mid-year assesments respectively. Spearman Rank order correlations and stepwise regression analyses were used to respectively determine significant associations and unique contributors. Results: All perceptual and coordination skills differed between children with and without DCD, although only visual perception and manual dexterity showed overall correlations with academic performance in children with DCD. Visual perception also correlated strongly with maths ( r = 0.26) and with the grade point average ( r = 0.31) in children with and without DCD ( r = 0.33, r = 0.45). The highest contribution to the total variance (23.11%) in math performance was explained by visual perception (22.04%), while visual perception contributed to 16.36% of 18.17% in the grade point average. Conclusion: Children with DCD display significantly inferior visual-perceptual and coordination skills of which visual perception and manual dexterity influence academic performance (especially maths), negatively.

South Africa consists of developed and developing contexts. This article reports on a study undertaken to determine the effect of a Perceptual–motor Intervention Programme in learning readiness of Grade R learners from deprived environments. Le Roux's Group Test for School Readiness was used as baseline assessments to establish the school readiness of Grade R learners from a deprived environment and to determine whether an effective intervention programme could rectify the shortcomings. The sample of the intervention group (n = 21) and the control group (n = 27) consisted of five to six-year-old learners. The experimental group (n = 21) of a Grade R class in a quintile 1 school followed a 10-week perceptual–motor intervention programme, while another Grade R class from a quintile two school as control group was not exposed to perceptual–motor intervention. A mixed method was applied, within an interpretivistic research design. The outcomes of the research are as follows: the results of the school readiness test were analysed with an independent t-test before intervention, a dependent t-test on improvement over time and an ANCOVA controlling for pre-test scores on the post-test. The results showed improvement in the school readiness as the experimental group improved with 33.3% compared with 14.8% in the control group. The experimental group's standard deviation (SD) is 8.11 and control group's SD is 4.96. Qualitative information was obtained from interviews with teachers and observation at the schools. The research shows the benefit for young learners learning readiness if teachers focus on intensive intervention programmes to overcome backlogs of deprivation and that effective intervention programmes could rectify shortcomings before formal teaching in Grade 1 commences. Future research to follow up the outcomes of the intervention group as well as control group could lead to a longitudinal report on the effects of such an intervention programme. Future research could also focus on other aspects contributing to school readiness like social–emotional development of young learners

Visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination skills have strong relationships with academic development and are considered to be some of the basic building blocks for optimal academic success. Pienaar et al. (2013:7) also confirmed a strong relationship between visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination skills and academic success in critical school performance areas, such as mathematics, reading and writing with regard to Grade 1-learners in South Africa. Results from this study also indicated a strong inverse relationship between low socio-economic status (SES), academic performance and visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor coordination skills. Various other studies also confirmed that low SES negatively influences the general and academic development of learners.1 Worldwide an increase is reported in the number of learners growing up in low socio-economic circumstances. With regard to the influence of gender on the relationship between visual-motor integration skills and academic performance, results in the literature are contradictory and range between very small to non-existing.According to the literature few studies furthermore investigated the role of gender on visual perception and motor coordination skills independently. In this regard, the study of Coetzee and Du Plessis (2013:40) involving 816 Grade 1-learners (419 boys and 397 girls in the North West Province, South-Africa), reported no significant gender differences for visual-motor integration, visual perception or motor coordination skills Visueel-motoriese integrasie, visuele persepsie en motoriese koördinasievaardighede toon ʼn sterk verwantskap met akademiese prestasie en sukses. Dié verwantskap lyk of dit leerders met ʼn lae sosio-ekonomiese status (SES), negatief beïnvloed. Die doel van dié studie was om die invloed van geslag, ras en sosio-ekonomiese status op visueel-motoriese integrasie van nege- tot 10-jarige leerders, woonagtig in die Noordwes Provinsie van Suid-Afrika, te bepaal. Leerders in Graad 3 en 4 (n=865; 457 seuns en 408 meisies, 9.9 jaar, sa=0.42), is as deel van die NW-CHILD longitudinale studie met die “The Developmental Tests of Visual-Motor Integration, Fourth Edition (VMI-4)” geëvalueer. Resultate is geanaliseer met “Statistica for Windows” (2014). Onafhanklike t-toetsing het die visueel-motoriese integrasie status vir die groep bepaal, asook per geslags-, ras en SES afsonderlik. Tweerigting frekwensietabelle het leerders in verskillende vaardigheidskategorieë vir visueel-motoriese integrasie, visuele persepsie en motoriese koördinasie geplaas. Resultate van dié studie toon dat leerders (onafhanklik van geslag, ras of SES) hoofsaaklik in die gemiddelde prestasie kategorie vir al drie vaardighede presteer het. Seuns het betekenisvol beter gevaar tydens visueel-motoriese integrasie (p≤0.001; d=0.22) met geen verdere betekenisvolle geslagsverskille nie. Ras het ʼn invloed gehad op visuele persepsie en motoriese koördinasie prestasie (p≤0.001; d=0.29 en p≤0.001; d=0.39), waar die wit leerders betekenisvol beter gevaar het. Lae SES het verder ook ʼn statistiese (p≤0.001) en klein prakties (d≥0.3) betekenisvol negatiewe invloed op al die vaardighede gehad. Die studie het bevind dat ras en lae SES die grootste negatiewe invloed op leerders se visueel-motoriese integrasie status uitgeoefen het

Objectives. To determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity among grade 1 learners, taking into account age, gender, race and school socioeconomic profile. Methods. The study is based on the baseline prevalence of overweight and obesity as part of the ongoing 6-year longitudinal NW Child Health Integrated Learning and Development (NW-CHILD) study. Stratified random sampling was used to identify 20 schools from four educational districts across all five quintiles of schools in the North West Province (NWP) of South Africa (SA). A total of 816 (419 boys, 397 girls) grade 1 learners with a mean age of 6.80 (standard deviation 0.39) years participated in the study, including 567 black learners, 218 white learners and 31 learners from other race groups. Standard anthropometric techniques and international body mass index (BMI) cut-off points for children were used to determine overweight and obesity. Results. A combined prevalence of overweight and obesity (Ow/Ob) of 11.1% was found, of which 7.5% were overweight and 3.6% obese. Although 7-year-old children showed a significantly higher prevalence of overweight (10.5%) than 6-year-old children (6.3%; p

Background Perceptual-motor skills contribute to a variety of basic learning skills associated with normal academic success. This study aimed to determine the relationship between academic performance and perceptual-motor skills in first grade South African learners and whether low SES (socio-economic status) school type plays a role in such a relationship. Methods This cross-sectional study of the baseline measurements of the NW-CHILD longitudinal study included a stratified random sample of first grade learners (n = 812; 418 boys and 394 boys), with a mean age of 6.78 years ± 0.49 living in the North West Province (NW) of South Africa. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-4 (VMI) was used to assess visual-motor integration, visual perception and hand control while the Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, short form (BOT2-SF) assessed overall motor proficiency. Academic performance in math, reading and writing was assessed with the Mastery of Basic Learning Areas Questionnaire. Linear mixed models analysis was performed with spss to determine possible differences between the different VMI and BOT2-SF standard scores in different math, reading and writing mastery categories ranging from no mastery to outstanding mastery. A multinomial multilevel logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship between a clustered score of academic performance and the different determinants. Results A strong relationship was established between academic performance and VMI, visual perception, hand control and motor proficiency with a significant relationship between a clustered academic performance score, visual-motor integration and visual perception. A negative association was established between low SES school types on academic performance, with a common perceptual motor foundation shared by all basic learning areas. Conclusion Visual-motor integration, visual perception, hand control and motor proficiency are closely related to basic academic skills required in the first formal school year, especially among learners in low SES type schools.

THIS STUDY REPORTS ON A learner-support intervention aimed at the development of perceptual-motor skills of kindergarten learners from disadvantaged environments. A quantitative research method was followed which consisted of a three-group, pre-test/post-test design. Three Grade R (kindergarten) schools were selected by means of a convenience sample. Two schools were selected from disadvantaged communities (Quintile 1 schools)—C1 ( n = 30) and E ( n = 25)—and one from a more advantaged community (Quintile 3 school)—C2 ( n = 22). A two-level perceptual-motor intervention was implemented in school E for nine months. All participants were tested before and after the intervention by means of a school-readiness test. Results were analysed using an analysis of variance (ANOVA), dependent t-tests and an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to determine differences among and within groups. A significant relationship was found between school readiness and perceptual-motor development. Results also suggested that a perceptual-motor intervention could aid learners from disadvantaged environments in overcoming factors which impede school readiness.

The relation between selected biographical variables and the attitude of Grade R teachers towards the development of perceptual motor skills of Grade R learners The development of perceptual motor skills of Grade R learners can possibly be influenced by the attitude of the Grade R teacher, and this can contribute to the fact that Grade R learners are found to be not school ready in Grade 1. A positive attitude with Grade R teachers will promote the development of perceptual motor skills, while a negative attitude may prevent perceptual motor skills from being addressed effectively. During this research, a quantitative method was followed to establish whether the development of perceptual motor skills can be influenced by the attitude of the Grade R teacher, and the research was undertaken from a post-positivistic perspective. The respondents (n=25) were selected according to availability, and they completed self-compiled questionnaires which were available in Afrikaans and/or English. The questionnaires were completed by Grade R teachers teaching in quintile 1 (n=5) (informal settlements); quintile 2 (n=4); quintile 3 (n=7); quintile 4 (n=4) and quintile 5 (n=5) (formal residential area) schools. The Department of Basic Education grades schools in quintiles according to the availability of learning and teaching support material (LTSM) as well as the area in which the school is situated. Results from this research were statistically analysed by means of descriptive statistics as well as Spearman's rank correlation, in order to analyse relationships between the amount of time devoted to teaching subjects in Grade R, the age and experience of Grade R teachers, as well as the socio-economic environment and the number of learners in the class on the one hand with the time spent on subjects in Grade R on the other hand. Two-way frequency tables with Chi square tests and Cramer's V were utilised to establish the strength of the relationships between race, language of teaching and learning and questions relating to attitude. A significant relationship was found between the age of Grade R teachers, their experience, the number of learners in the class, the socio economic environment and the time allocated to specific subjects. From the results it can be deduced that older teachers with little experience, with inadequate qualifications to teach Grade R, and teaching in overcrowded classes, devote less time to teaching various subjects. Results also show that sufficient LTSM is essential in order to effectively present the subject Life Skills, which includes teaching of perceptual motor skills. If these aspects are addressed by in-service training, the attitude of the teachers towards Life Skills will be affected positively, which in turn will benefit the development of learners' perceptual motor skills and reflect in the school readiness of Grade 1 learners. If these aspects were addressed by in-service training, the attitude of the teachers towards Life Skills would be affected positively, which would in turn benefit the development of learners' perceptual motor skills, eventually to be reflected in the school readiness of Grade 1 learners. Die ontwikkeling van Graad R-leerders se perseptueel-motoriese vaardighede kan moontlik beinvloed word deur die Graad R-onderwyser se houding. 'n Positiewe houding sal die ontwikkeling van perseptueel-motoriese vaardighede bevorder, terwyl 'n negatiewe houding kan veroorsaak dat nie aandag gegee word aan die vaardighede nie. 'n Kwantitatiewe metode is gevolg om te bepaal of die ontwikkeling van perseptueel-motoriese vaardighede by Graad R-leerders deur die onderwyser se houding beinvloed kan word. Die respondente (n=25) wat volgens 'n gerieflikheidsteekproef geselekteer is, het 'n self-opgestelde vraelys voltooi. Resultate is statisties geanaliseer deur middel van beskrywende statistiek asook as Spearman se rangorde-korrelasie, om verbande te ontleed tussen die onderwysers se ouderdom en ondervinding, die sosio-ekonomiese omstandighede en die aantal leerders in die klas aan die een kant, met die tyd wat aan vakke in Graad R bestee word aan die ander kant. Daar is verder gebruik gemaak van tweerigting-frekwensie-tabelle met Chi-kwadraattoetse en Cramer's V om die sterkte van die verband tussen ras, taal van onderrig en die vrae wat verband hou met houding, te bepaal. 'n Beduidende verband is gevind tussen die onderwysers se ouderdom, die ondervinding van die onderwysers, die aantal leerders in die klas, die sosio-ekonomiese omgewing, en die tyd wat aan vakke bestee word. Ouer onderwysers met min ervaring en oorvol klasse bestee minder tyd aan onderrig van verskillende vakke. Indien die aspekte aangepak word deur indiensopleiding, kan dit moontlik 'n positiewe effek uitoefen op die onderwyser se houding teenoor die onderrig van Lewensvaardighede, waarby die ontwikkeling van leerders se perseptueel-motoriese vaardighede sal baat om uiteindelik neerslag te vind in beter skoolgereedheid van Graad 1-leerders.

Objectives: This study aimed to determine the relationship between overweight and obesity and the motor performance of nine- to 13-year-old South African children. Design: The study used a one-way cross-sectional design based on baseline measurements. Settings and subjects: The research group comprised 280 Grade 4, 5 and 6 learners (128 boys and 152 girls) from two schools that represented a distribution of socio-economic status, race and gender. Outcome measures: Anthropometric [(body mass index (BMI) and fat percentage] and motor performance measurements (fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination and strength and agility) were obtained by means of the Fitnessgram and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-II. International age-specific cut-off points were used to classify the children's body composition as normal weight, overweight or obese. Data were analysed by means of descriptive statistics, correlation matrices and analysis of variance, followed by a Tukey post hoc analysis. Results: The results showed that running speed and agility decreased significantly with an increase in BMI. Muscular strength also decreased significantly with a smaller practical significance, while fine manual control, manual coordination, and body coordination showed the weakest relationship to BMI. Analysis of variance showed significant relationships between BMI and running speed and agility (p-value < 0.05). These relationships were influenced differently by gender and ethnicity. Conclusion: The motor performance of young South African children was negatively influenced by overweight and obesity. Intervention strategies are recommended to reduce the consequences of overweight and obesity in the overall development of such children.

Adequate proficiency at object control skills, which is influenced by biological and environmental constraints, underlies the development of more complex sport-specific skills. This study describes proficiency at six object control skills and demographic correlates associated with each skill and each skill criteria in 9- to 10-year-old children who were randomly selected from 20 schools ( N = 826) and tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development–2. Cross-tabulation and hierarchical linear models were used to analyze the effects of sex (433 boys, 393 girls), ethnicity (619 Black, 207 White), and high ( n = 312) and low ( n = 514) socioeconomic school environments. Twenty-three percent of the sample showed below average proficiency. Significant sex and socioeconomic school environment differences were found favoring boys and children from higher socioeconomic environments, although kicking showed significant interaction effects. It is concluded that environmental opportunities are the primary cause of differences across skills and the rates at which the skills are learned.

Background: In order to identify Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) as soon as possible, we need validated screening instruments that can be used for the early identification of motor coordination delays. The aim of this study was to establish the suitability of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (Little DCDQ) for the identification of DCD in a selected group of 3–5-year-old South African children (N = 53). Method: Both reliability and validity of the Little DCDQ were assessed. Test items of the Little DCDQ, completed by the parents, were compared against the standardised Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, in a group of 53 children aged 3–5 years. Results: Correlations of r = 0.3 were established between two of the test items and good internal consistency (Chronbach's Alpha, r = > 0.8) was established. The Little DCDQ showed poor sensitivity (57.14%), but reasonable specificity (81.25%). Conclusion: These results indicate that the Little DCDQ has potential as a screening instrument to detect possible DCD, but a few adjustments need to be considered.

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between physical activity and fitness in 212 South African rural primary school children. A questionnaire was used to gather physical activities performed during the whole week. The results show a few significant relationships between physical activity and sit-ups, shuttle run and 1600m run in girls, but none in boys. The gender difference may be explained by a ceiling effect in boys. The general absence of significant findings may be explained by the low nutritional status, unrecorded physical activity duration, high levels of physical activity, and heterogeneity in growth and maturation.本文旨在探討南非鄉鎮地區小學生身體活動量與體適能的關係，以問卷方式進行調查學童過去一星期的身體活動量，結果顯示女學童的身體活動量與仰臥起坐，來回跑及一千六百米跑有顯著相關，而男生的活動量與體適能卻沒有相關，這現象可能受其他因素影響所致。

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in English; abstract also in Chinese.The purpose of this study was to measure somatic and motor fitness characteristics in 8 to 11 (N = 232) year-old girls in Ellisras rural area of South Africa. Motor fitness was assessed with the EUROFIT test battery: 10 x 5 m shuttle run, standing broad jump, sit and reach, bentarm hang, sit-ups, flamingo balance and plate tapping. Somatic measurements were taken according to the protocol of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). Significant increases were observed with age in height, body weight, girth, width, skinfolds and sum of skinfolds in the Ellisras girls (p

Background : Child undernutrition remains a major public health concern in developing countries, with many negative consequences to child development. Objectives : To determine the prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight amongst Grade 1-learners in the North West Province (NWP) of South Africa (SA), taking into account gender, race and school type. Method : Eight hundred and sixteen (419 boys, 397 girls) learners participated in the study (567 black, 218 white, 31 other races). Underweight, stunting and wasting (Weight-for-age, height-for-age, BMI-for-age) were determined using the z -scores of the 2007 WHO reference sample (-2 SD). Results : A higher prevalence of wasting and underweight were found amongst the boys (8.35%; 5.97%) compared with the girls (6.30%; 2.52%), although this was only significant for underweight ( p = 0.02), whilst stunting percentages were very similar amongst girls (4.53%) and boys (4.06%). Underweight was the highest in the black group (5.47%; p < 0.01), compared with the white group (0.46%) and the prevalence of the conditions is associated with school types which represent low socio-economic circumstances (Quintile 1–3 schools). Only black learners showed stunting ( p < 0.01) and more black learners were wasted ( n = 39) compared with white ( n = 15; p = 0.08) learners. Quintile 1–3 schools had a significantly higher prevalence of underweight (5.14% – 8.18%) and stunting (3.88% – 10.7%) ( p < 0.01) compared with Quintile 4 and 5 schools. Conclusion : The prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight need improvement amongst school beginners, especially in Quintile 1–3 type schools but also amongst black learners living in the NWP of SA as it can have significant hampering effects on the future development and well-being of children. Agtergrond : Ondervoeding is steeds ‘n publieke gesondheidsgevaar by kinders in ontwikklende lande, met heelwat negatiewe gevolge vir kinderontwikkeling. Doel : Om te bepaal wat die voorkoms van groei-inperking, ondervoeding en ondergewig by Graad 1-leerders in die Noordwes-Provinsie (NWP) van Suid-Afrika (SA) is, met in ag neming van geslag, ras en skooltipe. Metode : Agt honderd en sestien leerders (419 seuns; 397 meisies) is ewekansig geselekteer vir deelname aan die studie (567 swart, 218 wit, 31 ander rasgroepe). Ondergewig, groei-inperking en ondervoeding is bepaal deur z -tellings vir massa-vir-ouderdom, lengte-vir-ouderdom en LMI-vir-ouderdom volgens die 2007 WHO verwysings (-2 SA). Resultate : ‘n Hoer voorkoms vir ondervoeding en ondergewig is by seuns (8.35%; 5.97%) teenoor meisies (6.30%; 2.52%) gevind, alhoewel slegs betekenisvol vir ondergewig ( p = 0.02), terrwyl persentasies van groei-inperking redelik dieselfde was by meisies (4.53%) en seuns (4.06%). Ondergewig het die hoogste voorkoms in die swart groep (5.47%; p < 0.01) getoon, en die voorkoms word geassosieer met skooltipes wat lae sosio-ekonomiese omstandighede verteenwoordig. Slegs swart leerders het groei-inperking getoon ( p < 0.01) en meer swart leerders was ondervoed ( n = 39) teenoor blanke ( n = 15) leerders. Kwintiel 1–3 skole het ‘n betekenisvolle hoer voorkoms vir ondergewig (5.14% – 8.18%) en groei-inperking (3.88% – 10.7%) getoon ( p < 0.01) as die Kwintiel 4 en 5 skole. Gevolgtrekking : Groei-inperking, ondervoeding en ondergewig moet by skoolbeginners verbeter word, veral in Kwintiel 1–3 skooltipes en by Swart leerlinge in die NWP van SA, veral weens die negatiewe uitwerking wat dit op die toekomstige ontwikkeling en welstand van leerders wat daaronder gebuk gaan, kan uitoefen.

The objective of this study was to determine whether the sport psychological profiles of talented 13-year-old sport participants differ from less talented participants. 162 grade 8 learners with a mean age of 13.2 ± 0.33 years voluntarily participated in the study. The participants were subjected to the Australian Talent Search protocol and completed the Athlete Coping Skills Inventory for Sport (ACSI-28). The group was categorize according to the median of all the tests of the talent identification protocol (TID) in a talented (TG) and a less talented group (LTG). The TG obtained higher means in all seven sport psychological characteristics: coping with adversity, peaking under pressure, goal setting, confidence, coachability and the average coping profile, concentration and freedom from worry . The results indicate that talented adolescents exhibit specific sport psychological characteristics compared to less talented adolescents. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpia20#.Veg7fJdGRfk http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2013.10820683

The aims of this study were to determine the extent of ocular, motor control problems and the effect of visual therapy on such problems, among seven- to eight-year-old children diagnosed with DCD. Thirty-two, children with a mean age of 95.66 months (SD 3.54) participated in the study. The MABC was used to classify children into DCD categories (

Objective. To determine the prevalence of hypertension in Grade 1 learners in the North West Province of South Africa and to investigate the association between blood pressure (BP) and body composition of these children. Methods. Data were collected by means of a stratified random sampling procedure from 816 Grade 1 learners (419 boys, 397 girls) with a mean age of 6.78±0.49 years (mean±SD), in the NWCHILD-study. Height, weight, skinfolds (subscapular, triceps, calf) and waist circumference were measured. The international recommended cut-off values of Cole et al. (2000) for body mass index (BMI) were used. Hypertension, defined as the average of two separate BP (BP) readings, where the systolic BP and diastolic BP is >95th percentile for age, sex and height, was determined by means of an Omron 705CP-II. Results. The overall prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension was 8.5% and 24.9%, respectively. Both systolic and diastolic BP was positively associated with BMI, body fat percentage and waist circumference. Boys and girls showed a similar prevalence of hypertension. A higher percentage of black children were hypertensive compared with whites, although the difference in BP of the groups was not significant. A high percentage of children with normal weight also showed increased levels of BP. Conclusions. High prevalences of hypertension were found in Grade 1 learners in the North West Province of South Africa. Small practical significant associations existed between BP and body composition. BP screening is therefore considered important in the paediatric population. Interventions which include physical activity are recommended to reduce potential cardiovascular complications and obesity among children. Other contributing factors to high BP amongst young children should also be investigated.SAJSM, vol 23 No. 4 2011

Development of previously disadvantaged communities was identified in South Afria (SA) as a national priority and sport was indicated to be part of such a strategy. Farm schools are among the poorest with regards to financial resources and physical structures in SA and consequently learners are confronted with many constraints regarding sport participation. The aim of this study was to develop a sport development programme for sprinting and long jump that is time effective and requires inexpensive equipment for 10-15 year old black children from farm schools. A pre-test/post-test 2-group research design was used. All girls between the ages 10 and 15 from 2 schools (N=66) who consented to participate in the study were tested by means of the Australian Talent Search protocol and the most talented girls (top 30%) in each school were selected by rank order for further testing by means of a sport specific test battery for the motor abilities underlying successful participation in sprint and long jump. The intervention group (n=19) underwent a development programme for ten weeks conducted twice a week for 1.5 hours and their results were compared to that of a control group (n=18) who did not follow a development programme. The results were analysed by means of independent t-testing and the practical significance of differences was determined by means of effect size. Covariance analysis (ANCOVA) was performed to adjust for pre-testing differences. The intervention programme contributed to improved motor and physical abilities important for performance in both sprints and long jump, namely: flexibility, explosive power, muscle endurance, reaction time, speed, speed endurance, acceleration and long jump. The development programme can successfully develop motor abilities important for successful participation in sprinting and long jump despite various limitations South African farm schools have to deal with.

The aim of this study was to determine the utility of a self administered questionnaire on maturity status (MSQ) (which also included questions on somatic development) by comparing it with biological age (as determined by the Greulich-Pyle x-ray [GP] method). The MSQ was compiled based on the sexual maturity stages developed by Tanner in 1962, while biological age was determined by the Greulich-Pyle (GP) method. Rugby players (N=18) were tested over a period of three years (15.9 – 17.9 years old). The GP method classified the players into early developers (ED) (n=4), average developers (AD) (n=13) and one (n=1) late developer. Discriminant function analysis identified seven from 10 questions at the mean age of 15.7 years regarding sexual and somatic maturity to discriminate between ED and AD. Only 25% of the ED and 61% of the AD could, however, be classified back into their original groups by making use of the Jackknife statistical method. A further stepwise discriminant analysis indicated that three of the seven questions had better discriminative ability, although cross validation by means of the Jackknife method indicated that only 75% of the ED and 38.5% of the AD could be classified correctly by means of these three variables. It was concluded that the discriminality of the MSQ was not adequate, but that some variables have more potential for classification purposes than others. Refinement of the instrument is recommended. Key words: Biological age; Greulich-Pyle-method; Sexual maturity; Early developers; Late developers; Maturity status; Questionnaire

The high occurrence of overweight and obesity amongst children is a disturbing health problem worldwide. Possible causes of increasing childhood obesity are inactivity and energy imbalances. The aim of this study was to analyse the total energy expenditure (TEE) and physical activity levels in 9-year-old – 12-year-old overweight and obese children during a weekday and a weekend day, as well as during a weekday morning and afternoon. Twenty-four 9-year-old – 12-year-old children (seven boys and 17 girls), of whom nine were overweight and 15 were obese, were selected from seven public primary schools for this study. Body mass index (BMI) cut-off points were used to distinguish between overweight and obese. Each participant wore an ACTICAL™ monitor to determine their physical activity levels and TEE. It was found that the TEE of the children did not differ between a week day and a weekend day, although the TEE of the week day afternoon differed significantly from that of the weekday morning. Unlike the overweight children, none of the obese children met the requirements of 60 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Strategies should be found to increase the activity levels of overweight and, especially, obese children, specifically during the mornings and over weekends.Die hoë voorkoms van oorgewig en obesiteit onder kinders is wêreldwyd ’n kommerwekkende gesondheidsprobleem. Fisieke onaktiwiteit en energiewanbalanse word as moontlike oorsake van die probleem beskou. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die totale energieverbruik (TEV) en fisieke-aktiwiteitsvlakke van 9-jarige – 12-jarige oorgewig- en obese kinders tydens ‘n totale weeksdag en naweekdag te ontleed, asook tydens die oggend en middag van ‘n weeksdag. Vier-en-twintig 9-jarige – 12-jarige kinders (sewe seuns en 17 dogters), waarvan nege oorgewig en 15 obees was, is uit sewe publieke laerskole vir die studie gekies. Afsnypunte volgens die liggaamsmassa-indeks (LMI) is gebruik om tussen oorgewig en obees te onderskei. Elke deelnemer het ‘n ACTICAL™ monitor gedra om hul fisieke-aktiwiteitsvlakke en TEV te bepaal. Die studie het getoon dat die TEV van die kinders op ’n weeksdag en naweekdag nie verskil het nie, alhoewel TEV tydens die middag van die weeksdag betekenisvol verskil het van die oggend s’n. Anders as die oorgewig kinders, het geen van die obese kinders aan die voorgestelde riglyn van 60 minute se matig intensiewe fisieke aktiwiteit per dag voldoen nie. Strategieë moet gevind word om die vlakke van aktiwiteit van oorgewig en veral obese kinders te verhoog, spesifiek gedurende die oggende en oor naweke.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of growth and maturation over a period of three years on the physical and motor abilities and rugby skills of talented young rugby players aged 15 to 18 years. Differences between early developers (ED) (n = 4), average developers (AD) (n = 13) and late developers (LD) (n = 1) were also assessed over the three-year period. Flexibility, leg and back strength, muscle endurance, speed and aerobic endurance were measured using different standardized tests. Differences over the three-year period were analysed within and between groups using descriptive statistics, repeated measurements over time and two-way Analysis of Variance. An analysis adjusting for race and playing position was also performed to evaluate the role of these characteristics in the results. Results indicated no significant differences in physical and motor abilities or rugby skills of players between ages 15 and 18 years, although significant improvement was seen in flexibility and explosive strength of early and average developers. Furthermore race showed an effect on strength measurements (especially leg strength), and player position on leg strength and aerobic endurance, while the effect of late development seems to shrink as boys grow older.Key words: Early developers; Average developers; Late developers; Motor abilities; Physical abilities; Maturation.