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BACKGROUND: The "Internal Struggle Hypothesis" (Kovacs and Beck, ) suggests that suicidal persons may have both a wish to live (WTL) and a wish to die (WTD). The current study investigates whether the three-group typology - "WTL", "ambivalent (AMB)", and "WTD" - is determined by common correlates of suicidality and whether these groups can be ordinally ranked. METHODS: The sample comprised 113 older inpatients. Discriminant analysis was used to create two functions (combining social, psychiatric, psychological, and somatic variables) to predict the assignment of older inpatients into the groups WTL, AMB, and WTD. RESULTS: The functions "Subjective Well-being" and "Social Support" allowed us to assign patients into these three distinct groups with good accuracy (66.1%). "Subjective Well-being" contrasted the groups WTD and WTL and "Social Support" discriminated between the groups WTD and AMB. "Social Support" was highest in the AMB group. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest a simultaneous presence of a WTL and a WTD in older inpatients, and also that the balance between them is determined by "Subjective Well-being" and "Social Support". Unexpectedly, the AMB group showed the highest scores on "Social Support". We hypothesize that higher social support might function as an important determinant of a remaining WTL when a WTD is present because of a lower sense of well-being. The study suggests that the groups WTL-AMB-WTD can not situated on a one-dimensional continuum. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Language: en

BACKGROUND: Despite the fact that suicide is an important public health problem, the etiology is still not well understood. Especially lacking is a societal-level approach that takes into account the extent to which several risk factor domains are attributable to new onset of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STB). METHODS: Data stem from a cross-sectional population study of the non-institutionalized adult (18+) population from Belgium (N=2419). The third version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI-3.0) was administered to assess lifetime STB and risk factor domains. Multivariate approaches, expressed in population attributable risk proportions, were used to estimate the proportion of new onset cases of STB related to the occurrence of different risk factors. RESULTS: Approximately 38% of cases of suicidal ideation onset were attributable to mental disorders, 20% to chronic physical conditions, and another 13% to parental psychopathology. Suicide attempts in the general population were attributable to mental disorders (PARP=48%), but attempts among persons with suicidal ideation were unrelated to mental disorders, but rather to trauma (PARP=17%) and childhood adversities (PARP=12%). LIMITATIONS: This is an explorative study using multivariate additive general models that generates specific hypotheses on the development of STB onset rather than testing specific pathways in the process of STB. CONCLUSIONS: New onset STB is mostly attributable to proximal risk factors such as mental disorders. However, distal risk factors like childhood adversities or trauma also play a considerable role in the new onset of STB, especially in the transition from suicide ideation to suicide attempt. Language: en

Background:Death wishes are not uncommon in older persons, and to date, several risk factors have been identified. The presence of these risk factors is insufficient to fully understand why some older people, who are exposed to them, develop a wish to die and why others do not. The purpose of the study was to explore whether Purpose in Life as well as other life attitudes are associated with a death wish in older males and females.Methods:The sample comprised 113 older inpatients (from a psychiatric and somatic ward) with a mean age of 74 years. Psychiatric diagnoses were assessed by the SCID-II. Logistic regression analyses estimated the unique contribution of (the interaction between) life attitudes and gender to the wish to die, controlling for sociodemographic variables, depressive disorder, and somatic symptoms.Results:We observed a statistically significant relationship between life attitudes and the wish to die. Purpose in Life and the Purpose in Life*Gender interaction explained significant additional variance in the prediction of the wish to die. Purposelessness in life might therefore be an important correlate of a wish to die, especially in older men, independently from sociodemographic and clinical features.Conclusions:In assessing a wish to die in older adults, life attitudes need to be taken into account, besides the presence of a depressive disorder and/or somatic health. More specifically, finding or maintaining a purpose in later life might be an important feature in the prevention of the wish to die, especially in male persons.

The study explores the reflections of older adults on the process preceding their suicide attempt. Data were gathered using in-depth interviews with eight older inpatients who had attempted suicide. Grounded theory methodology was used for data analysis. They described their life and the self as disrupted after experiencing a loss, loneliness, loss of control, and unwillingness to continue living the current life. The findings suggest that the concurrence of these constructs precedes a suicide attempt in later life.

SummarySuicide is accepted as a major health problem worldwide, especially in the young and middle aged. It is, however, a significant health problem in older people as well, and those aged 65 years and over generally have the highest suicide rates compared with all other age groups. In research literature from the last decade, there has been an increased interest in disentangling the phenomenon of suicide in later life. This paper aims to critically review the literature on suicide and suicidality in later life published from 2000 to 2009. Prevalence rates as well as risk and protective factors are mapped and correlates reviewed. The association between suicidality and help-seeking behaviour is considered. Finally, potential prevention strategies are reviewed.

BACKGROUND: Chronic pain and mood disorders are common in older people. Their relationship however remains unclear. Only a few studies have investigated the role of pain in mental health service use and received psychopharmacological treatment. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of the 65+ subsample from the European Study on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD). 4401 non-institutionalized individuals were interviewed using the third version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI-3.0). RESULTS: Painful physical symptoms (PPS) were more likely in people with a 12-month major depressive episode (MDE) than in those without (OR=2.0). Help seeking for emotional problems was uncommon, but PPS were a significant predictor of help-seeking (OR=1.7). Respondents with MDE more frequently used benzodiazepines than antidepressants. The presence of PPS in respondents without depression resulted in a significant increase in the use of psychotropic medication. CONCLUSIONS: PPS were strongly and independently associated with major depressive disorder. Their presence had an influence on help seeking behavior and use of psychotropic medication. LIMITATIONS: The cross-sectional nature of this study does not allow determination of direction of causality. ispartof: Journal of Affective Disorders vol:117 issue:3 pages:193-196 ispartof: location:Netherlands status: published

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the association between non-psychotic serious mental disorders and earnings in the general population of Belgium on both the individual- and society-level.Subjects and methodsData stem from a cross-sectional population study of the non-institutionalized adult (between 18 and 64) population from Belgium (N = 863). The third version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI-3.0) was administered to assess 12-month non-psychotic serious mental disorders and annual earnings. Multivariate approaches were used to estimate the observed and estimated annual earnings for persons with serious mental disorders, controlling for sociodemographic variables and alcohol disorders.ResultsOn the individual-level, 12-month serious mental disorders significantly predicted the probability of having any earnings (OR = 0.32; 95%CI = 0.14–0.74). Respondents with serious mental disorders had 12-month earnings of 5969€ less than expected in the absence of serious mental disorders. Taking into account the prevalence of serious mental disorders (i.e. 4.9%), the society-level effects of serious mental disorders in 2002 can be estimated at about 1797 million € per year for the Belgian general population.DiscussionNon-psychotic serious mental disorders had considerable impact on annual earnings.ConclusionThis is the first study in Belgium that addresses the association between mental illness and earnings. Serious mental disorders are associated with individual- and societal-level impairments and loss of human capital.

Objective: To examine the association between body mass, mental disorders, and functional disability in the general population of 6 European countries. Method: Data ( n = 21 425) were derived from the European Study on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD). The third version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview was administered to assess mental disorders (mood, anxiety, and alcohol disorders) according to the Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-fourth edition, body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2, based on self-reported height and weight), and functional disability in the previous 30 days, assessed with the World Health Organization Disablement Assessment Scale—second version. Results: About 3% of the respondents were underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2), 53% had normal weight (BMI 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2), 33% were overweight (BMI 25 to 29.9 kg/m2), and the remaining 12% met criteria for obesity (BMI > 30.0 kg/m2). Compared with individuals of normal weight, obese individuals were more likely to have mood (OR 1.3; 95%CI, 1.0 to 1.8) or more than one mental disorder (OR 1.4; 95%CI, 1.0 to 2.2). BMI had no impact on work loss days, whereas mental disorders had a considerable effect on work loss days. Conclusions: This is the first cross-national study investigating the role between BMI, mental disorders, and functional disability in the general population. Being overweight or obese is a common condition in the 6 ESEMeD countries. Although there is a moderate association between obesity and mental disorders, BMI did not independently influence functional disability.

Objective To examine factors associated with the use of antidepressants (AD) and benzodiazepines (BZD) in 6 European countries. Methods A cross-sectional, population-based study was conducted in: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain. 21,425 non-institutionalized individuals aged 18 years and over were interviewed using the third version of the Composite International Interview (CIDI-3.0). Respondents were asked about AD and BZD use, and whether they consulted formal health services for emotional problems in the previous year. Sociodemographic variables, presence of mood/anxiety disorders and of painful physical symptoms were collected. Results 34.38% and 9.17% of the sample reported the use of AD and BZD respectively in the previous 12 months. Only 29.95% of subjects with a 12-month prevalence of major depressive episode (MDE) had been taking antidepressants. After controlling for several clinical and non-clinical factors, help seeking for emotional problems was the most important independent predictor for the use of AD or BZD (OR: 13.58 and 5.17, respectively). Higher age was the second important predictor (OR: 6.52 and 4.86, respectively). A 12-month or lifetime prevalence of MDE or an anxiety disorder were also predictors for AD or BZD use (OR for MDE: 5.00 and 2.82, OR for anxiety disorders: 2.13 and 1.85). Finally, the presence of painful physical symptoms also predicted the use of AD and BZD, while female gender, lower education and higher age predicted only the use of BZD. Conclusion Less than one third of subjects with a 12-month prevalence of MDE had been taking antidepressants. But seeking help for emotional problems was a more important predictor of the use of ADs or BZDs than a formal (DSM-IV) psychiatric diagnosis, suggesting that usage of ADs is not always according to the licensed DSM-IV indication.

OBJECTIVES: To provide data on rates and predictors of lifetime treatment for mental disorders in Belgium from the European Study on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD). MATERIAL AND METHOD: This is a cross-sectional population study of 1,043 non-institutionalized adult (18+) inhabitants from Belgium, The third version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI-3.0) was administered to assess lifetime mental disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th version (DSM-IV), failure and delay of treatment for mental disorders, the duration of the delay between onset of the disorder and first treatment contact, and the proportion of persons seeking help in the same year as the onset of the disorder. RESULTS: Cumulative lifetime probability curves show that the vast majority of persons with mental disorders will eventually make a first treatment contact, although more so for mood (93.7%) and anxiety disorders (84.5%) than for alcohol disorders (61.2%). Median duration of delay in treatment was lowest for mood disorders (1 year), but peaked for anxiety (16 years) and alcohol disorders (18 years). Both older cohorts and late age of onset of the disorder predicted a higher probability of lifetime treatment. CONCLUSION: Although most disorders are eventually treated, the delays between onset of the disorder and first treatment contact are impressive, despite the high-density and high accessibility of primary and specialized care in Belgium. ispartof: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology vol:42 issue:11 pages:937-44 ispartof: location:Germany status: published

AIMS: To estimate lifetime risk and age of onset of mental disorders in the adult general population of Belgium. METHOD AND MATERIALS: For the World Mental Health Surveys of the World Health Organization, a representative random sample of non-institutionalized inhabitants from Belgium aged 18 or older (n = 2419) were interviewed between April 2001 and June 2002. The interview took place by means of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, version 3.0. Lifetime prevalence, projected lifetime risk, and age-of-onset of mental disorders were assessed. RESULTS: Lifetime risk for any mental disorder was 37.1%: 22.8% for mood disorders, 15.7% for anxiety disorders, and 10.8% for alcohol disorders. Median age of onset was 38 years for mood, 14 years for anxiety, and 23 years for alcohol disorders. Prevalence estimates of mood and alcohol disorders were significantly higher in the cohorts between 18 and 34 years. CONCLUSION: This is the first study that assessed projected lifetime risk and age of onset of mental disorders in the Belgian general population. About one-third of the Belgian non-institutionalized adult population will meet the criteria for a DSM-IV mental disorder at some time during their life. Median age of onset varies from disorder to disorder and younger cohorts had higher likelihood for developing mental disorders. ispartof: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology vol:42 issue:7 pages:522-529 ispartof: location:Germany status: published

The "Internal Struggle Hypothesis" (Kovacs and Beck, ) suggests that suicidal persons may have both a wish to live (WTL) and a wish to die (WTD). The current study investigates whether the three-group typology - "WTL", "ambivalent (AMB)", and "WTD" - is determined by common correlates of suicidality and whether these groups can be ordinally ranked.The sample comprised 113 older inpatients. Discriminant analysis was used to create two functions (combining social, psychiatric, psychological, and somatic variables) to predict the assignment of older inpatients into the groups WTL, AMB, and WTD.The functions "Subjective Well-being" and "Social Support" allowed us to assign patients into these three distinct groups with good accuracy (66.1%). "Subjective Well-being" contrasted the groups WTD and WTL and "Social Support" discriminated between the groups WTD and AMB. "Social Support" was highest in the AMB group.Our results suggest a simultaneous presence of a WTL and a WTD in older inpatients, and also that the balance between them is determined by "Subjective Well-being" and "Social Support". Unexpectedly, the AMB group showed the highest scores on "Social Support". We hypothesize that higher social support might function as an important determinant of a remaining WTL when a WTD is present because of a lower sense of well-being. The study suggests that the groups WTL-AMB-WTD can not situated on a one-dimensional continuum. Copyright © 2016 John WileySons, Ltd.

Background:A wish to die is common in older persons and is associated with increased mortality. Several risk factors have been identified, but the association between religiousness and a wish to die in older adults has been underexplored, and the association between death attitudes and the presence of a wish to die has not been investigated yet. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between religiousness and death attitudes on the one hand and wish to die on the other hand, adjusting for clinical factors such as the presence of depression or somatic disorder.Methods:The sample comprised 113 older inpatients (from a psychiatric and somatic ward) with a mean age of 74 years. Psychiatric diagnoses were assessed by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders, and logistic regression analyses estimated the unique contribution of religiousness and death attitudes to the wish to die, controlling for socio-demographic variables, depressive disorder, and somatic symptoms.Results:Both religiousness and death attitudes were associated with a wish to die in univariate models. Adding these variables in a multivariate logistic hierarchical model, death attitudes remained significant predictors but religiousness did not; 55% of the pseudovariance of the wish to die was explained by these variables, with an effective size of 0.89. Major depressive episode, somatic symptoms, Fear of Death, and Escape Acceptance were the most important predictors of the wish to die.Conclusions:This study suggests that how older adults perceive death partly determines whether they have a wish to die. There may be a clinical, patient-oriented benefit in discussing with older patients about how they perceive death, as this can play a role in the early detection (and prevention) of death or suicide ideation and associated behaviors in older adults.

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the 12-month and lifetime prevalence rates of pure and comorbid mental disorders (mood, anxiety and alcohol disorders) in Belgian home-dwelling elderly.

This article reports on a qualitative study with 21 young adults who grew up with a depressed parent. We examined how young adults make sense of their childhood experiences of parental depression and how their retrospective reflections help us to understand the experiences of children and the processes of parentification. Participants recounted that their childhood consisted mainly of actions in the service of family well-being. At that time, they reflected on their own experiences only rarely. In adolescence, there was an evolution toward a greater consideration for oneself and a repositioning within the family. In the discussion, we explore the therapeutic implications of this study--and in particular--the meaningfulness of silence in the family process of parentification.

Objective: To compare the 12-month prevalence of common mental disorders among francophones in Canada, France, and Belgium. This is the first article in a 2-part series comparing mental disorders and service use prevalence of French-speaking populations. Methods: This is a secondary analysis of data from the Canadian Community Health Survey: Mental Health and Well-Being (CCHS 1.2) in 2002 and the European Study of Epidemiology of Mental Disorders-Mental Health Disability (ESEMeD) from 2001 to 2003, where comparable questionnaires were administered to representative samples of adults in Canada, France, and Belgium. In Canada, francophone respondents living in Quebec ( n = 7571) and outside Quebec ( n = 500) completed the French version of the CCHS 1.2 questionnaire. Francophone respondents in Belgium ( n = 389) and in France ( n = 1436) completed the French version of the ESEMeD population survey questionnaire. Major depressive episodes (MDEs), specific anxiety disorders (ADs), and alcohol abuse and (or) dependence disorders' rates were assessed. Results: The overall prevalence rate for the presence of any MDE, AD, or alcohol abuse and (or) dependence was similar in all francophone populations studied in Canada and Europe and averaged 8.5%. Conclusions: Mental disorders were equally distributed in all francophone populations studied. Cross-national comparisons continue to be instrumental in providing information useful for the creation of appropriate policies and programs for specific subsets of populations.

To examine factors associated with the use of antidepressants (AD) and benzodiazepines (BZD) in 6 European countries.A cross-sectional, population-based study was conducted in: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain. 21,425 non-institutionalized individuals aged 18 years and over were interviewed using the third version of the Composite International Interview (CIDI-3.0). Respondents were asked about AD and BZD use, and whether they consulted formal health services for emotional problems in the previous year. Sociodemographic variables, presence of mood/anxiety disorders and of painful physical symptoms were collected.34.38% and 9.17% of the sample reported the use of AD and BZD respectively in the previous 12 months. Only 29.95% of subjects with a 12-month prevalence of major depressive episode (MDE) had been taking antidepressants. After controlling for several clinical and non-clinical factors, help seeking for emotional problems was the most important independent predictor for the use of AD or BZD (OR: 13.58 and 5.17, respectively). Higher age was the second important predictor (OR: 6.52 and 4.86, respectively). A 12-month or lifetime prevalence of MDE or an anxiety disorder were also predictors for AD or BZD use (OR for MDE: 5.00 and 2.82, OR for anxiety disorders: 2.13 and 1.85). Finally, the presence of painful physical symptoms also predicted the use of AD and BZD, while female gender, lower education and higher age predicted only the use of BZD.Less than one third of subjects with a 12-month prevalence of MDE had been taking antidepressants. But seeking help for emotional problems was a more important predictor of the use of ADs or BZDs than a formal (DSM-IV) psychiatric diagnosis, suggesting that usage of ADs is not always according to the licensed DSM-IV indication.

Background: Painful physical symptoms (PPS) are frequent in patients with Major Depressive Episode (MDE). Here, the 12-month prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics of PPS were examined taking into account somatic comorbidity; quantitative and qualitative aspects of MDE with or without PPS were investigated as well as their impact on work loss days (WLD). Finally, help seeking and delay in help seeking were explored. Methods: In a cross-sectional, population-based study, a representative random sample of non-institutionalised adults from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain (N=21,425) was interviewed using the World Mental Health Composite Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0 of the WHO). Results: PPS were reported by 29% of respondents without MDE and by 50% in those with MDE. Female gender, higher age and lower educational level were predictive of PPS. PPS were more frequent in more severely depressed patients but no qualitative differences were found in MDE with and MDE without PPS. An additive effect of MDE and PPS was found on the WLD score. Whether a comorbid somatic disorder was present or not did not change the findings. Finally, respondents with MDE and PPS had lower rates of help seeking for emotional reasons and show a trend to delay their help seeking longer. Limitations: The most important limitation of this study was its reliance on self-report data about somatic disorders. Conclusion: Approximately one in two persons with a mood disorder also reported the presence of PPS. MDE and PPS result in decreased productivity and in lower rates of help seeking.