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Alginate is a linear copolymer composed of 1→4 linked β-d-mannuronic acid (M) and its epimer α-l-guluronic acid (G). The polysaccharide is first produced as homopolymeric mannuronan and subsequently, at the polymer level, C-5 epimerases convert M residues to G residues. The bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii encodes a family of seven secreted and calcium ion-dependent mannuronan C-5 epimerases (AlgE1–AlgE7). These epimerases consist of two types of structural modules: the A-modules, which contain the catalytic site, and the R-modules, which influence activity through substrate and calcium binding. In this study, we rationally designed new hybrid mannuronan C-5 epimerases constituting the A-module from AlgE6 and the R-module from AlgE4. This led to a better understanding of the molecular mechanism determining differences in MG- and GG-block-forming properties of the enzymes. A long loop with either tyrosine or phenylalanine extruding from the β-helix of the enzyme proved essential in defining the final alginate block structure, probably by affecting substrate binding. Normal mode analysis of the A-module from AlgE6 supports the results. This is an open access article published under an ACS AuthorChoice License, which permits copying and redistribution of the article or any adaptations for non-commercial purposes.

This document is the unedited Author’s version of a Submitted Work that was subsequently accepted for publication in Biomacromolecules , copyright © American Chemical Society after peer review. To access the final edited and published work see https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01796 With the present accessibility of algal raw material, microbial alginates as a source for strong gelling material are evaluated as an alternative for advanced applications. Recently, we have shown that alginate from algal sources all contain a fraction of very long G-blocks (VLG), that is, consecutive sequences of guluronic acid (G) residues of more than 100 residues. By comparing the gelling properties of these materials with in vitro epimerized polymannuronic acid (poly-M) with shorter G-blocks, but comparable with the G-content, we could demonstrate that VLG have a large influence on gelling properties. Hypothesized to function as reinforcement bars, VLG prevents the contraction of the gels during formation (syneresis) and increases the Young’s modulus (strength of the gel). Here we report that these VLG structures are also present in alginates from Azotobacter vinelandii and that these polymers consequently form stable, low syneretic gels with calcium, comparable in mechanical strength to algal alginates with the similar monomeric composition. The bacterium expresses seven different extracellular mannuronan epimerases (AlgE1-AlgE7), of which only the bifunctional epimerase AlgE1 seems to be able to generate the long G-blocks when acting on poly-M. The data implies evidence for a processive mode of action and the necessity of two catalytic sites to obtain the observed epimerization pattern. Furthermore, poly-M epimerized with AlgE1 in vitro form gels with comparable or higher rigidity and gel strength than gels made from brown seaweed alginate with matching G-content. These findings strengthen the viability of commercial alginate production from microbial sources.

A family of seven mannuronan C5-epimerases (AlgE1-AlgE7) produced by Azotobacter vinelandii is able to convert β- d -mannuronate (M) to its epimer α- l -guluronate (G) in alginates. Even sharing high sequence homology at the amino acid level, they produce distinctive epimerization patterns. The introduction of new G-blocks into the polymer by in vitro epimerization is a strategy to improve the mechanical properties of alginates as biomaterial. However, epimerization is hampered when the substrate is modified or in the gelled state. Here it is presented how native and engineered epimerases of varying size perform on steric hindered alginate substrates (modified or as hydrogels). Reducing the size of the epimerases enables the epimerization of otherwise inaccessible regions in the alginate polymer. Even though the reduction of the size affects the productive binding of epimerases to the substrate, and hence their activity, the smaller epimerases could more freely diffuse into calcium-alginate hydrogel and epimerize it.