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Abstract The population of South American camelids (SAC) has been steadily growing in Europe, where they are confronted with the regional endoparasite population of ruminants. As there are no anthelmintic drugs registered for use against nematode infections in SACs, anthelmintics (AH) available for ruminants or horses are usually applied. Reports indicating potential failures in administered AH are increasing. However, the generally low egg counts in SACs complicate the application of resistance tests in the field. The present study reports a follow-up study on SAC farms where anthelmintic resistance (AR) was suspected. The aims were (i) to repeat faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRTs) on potentially affected farms identified in a previous study with larger sample sizes, (ii) to verify suspected AR of Haemonchus contortus against benzimidazoles (BZ) by performing a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis using digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR), and (iii) to apply the mini-FLOTAC technique for more reliable results at low egg counts in line with current recommendations. Seven farms (9–46 animals each) were examined by coproscopy, larval differentiation and SNP analysis. A FECRT was performed on six of these farms with moxidectin (three farms), monepantel (two farms) and ivermectin (one farm). The FEC was calculated according to the current World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) guidelines with the clinical protocol (a newly introduced variant of FECRT which can be used for smaller sample sizes and lower egg counts on the cost of sensitivity) and an expected efficacy of 99%. A high level (> 90%) of BZ-resistance-associated SNPs on codon 200 of H. contortus was observed on all farms. With the FECRT, resistance was demonstrated for ivermectin (74% FECR), while it remained inconclusive for one farm for moxidectin treatment. Sustained efficacy was demonstrated for the remaining treatments. This study showed an advanced level of BZ resistance in H. contortus of SACs and the development of AR against macrocyclic lactones on some farms. Thus, constant monitoring of AH treatment and sustainable worm control methods both need to be applied. Graphical Abstract

The population of South American camelids (SAC) has been steadily growing in Europe, where they are confronted with the regional endoparasite population of ruminants. As there are no anthelmintic drugs registered for use against nematode infections in SACs, anthelmintics (AH) available for ruminants or horses are usually applied. Reports indicating potential failures in administered AH are increasing. However, the generally low egg counts in SACs complicate the application of resistance tests in the field. The present study reports a follow-up study on SAC farms where anthelmintic resistance (AR) was suspected. The aims were (i) to repeat faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRTs) on potentially affected farms identified in a previous study with larger sample sizes, (ii) to verify suspected AR of Haemonchus contortus against benzimidazoles (BZ) by performing a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis using digital polymerase chain reaction (dPCR), and (iii) to apply the mini-FLOTAC technique for more reliable results at low egg counts in line with current recommendations. Seven farms (9–46 animals each) were examined by coproscopy, larval differentiation and SNP analysis. A FECRT was performed on six of these farms with moxidectin (three farms), monepantel (two farms) and ivermectin (one farm). The FEC was calculated according to the current World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP) guidelines with the clinical protocol (a newly introduced variant of FECRT which can be used for smaller sample sizes and lower egg counts on the cost of sensitivity) and an expected efficacy of 99%. A high level (> 90%) of BZ-resistance-associated SNPs on codon 200 of H. contortus was observed on all farms. With the FECRT, resistance was demonstrated for ivermectin (74% FECR), while it remained inconclusive for one farm for moxidectin treatment. Sustained efficacy was demonstrated for the remaining treatments. This study showed an advanced level of BZ resistance in H. contortus of SACs and the development of AR against macrocyclic lactones on some farms. Thus, constant monitoring of AH treatment and sustainable worm control methods both need to be applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In current study, anti-parasitic properties of Nicotiana tabacum leaves (N. tabacum L.) and their traditional use in ethno-veterinary therapy were investigated using both in-vitro and in-vivo approaches. Crude aqueous extracts (CAE) of N. tabacum L. were used to evaluate in-vitro antiparasitic effect of Haemonchus (H.) placei that had been directly retrieved from the abomasum of cows. The nematodes' death or paralysis within three hours subsequent to being exposed to different quantities 25, 50 and 100 mg/ml of CAE proved to be statistically significant (P<0.05) indicator. Cattle infected with gastrointestinal nematodes, specifically H. placei, were orally administered with crude aqueous extracts (CAE) and crude methanolic extracts (CME) at gradually higher dosage of 1.0 and 3.0 gm/kg, respectively to evaluate in-vivo anthelmintic efficiency. When administered with 3.0 gm/kg of the body weight, CME showed an ideal decrease of 75.8 and 79.03% parasitic infection but CAE showed 48.88 and 51.11% reduction after 5 and 10 days of treatment, respectively (P<0.05). The overall reduction in eggs per gram was 98.68% in positive controls treated with levamisole HCl. Being an initial investigation of its kind in Pakistan, the outcomes suggested that N. tabacum L. have potential to be used as anti-parasitic agent in ethno-veterinary medication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxocara canis (T. canis) is a gastrointestinal nematode in dogs, and its larvae also infect humans, causing severe larval migratory disease. Anthelmintic drugs have become the primary means to combat T. canis. In this study, the efficacy of nitazoxanide (NTZ) was tested against all the internal stages of T. canis, including L3 larval stage in vitro experiments and gastrointestinal worm in vivo experiments. In the in vitro experiment, after treatment with NTZ at 7.81 and 62.5 μg/mL for 12 h, the larval mortality efficacy reached 90.0 and 100.0%, respectively. In the in vivo experiments, 100 mg/kg NTZ possessed good anthelmintic efficacy against T. canis, with an egg per gram (EPG) reduction of 99.19%, and 90.00% of dogs cleared with residual worms. These results were comparable to those of the positive control drug. The highest anthelmintic efficacy was observed in the group treated with 150 mg/kg NTZ. Based on faecal egg counts, the number of T. canis eggs decreased by 100.00%, and the percentage of dogs cleared with residual worms achieved 90.00% after 7 days of treatment in the 150-mg/kg NTZ treatment group. In general, NTZ showed great potential to be applied as an anthelmintic against T. canis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Ascaridia galli is the most common nematode in chickens. Ascaridia galli is highly prevalent in chickens reared in scavenging or semiscavenging systems. Here, we studied the epidemiology, pathology, genetic diversity, ex vivo culture protocol and anthelmintic sensitivity of A. galli prevalent in indigenous chickens in Bangladesh. Through morphological study and molecular analyses, the isolated worms were confirmed as A. galli. Of the chickens examined, 45.6% (178 out of 390) were found infected. The male and young chickens were significantly (P < 0.05) more prone to A. galli infection. Prevalence of the infection was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the summer season. In heavy infections, A. galli blocked the small intestine. Marked inflammation, increased mucus production and petechial hemorrhages were evident in the small intestine, particularly in the duodenum. Also, there were desquamation and adhesion of the mucosal villi; degeneration, necrosis of the epithelial cells and goblet cell hyperplasia. The mucosal layer was infiltrated mainly with eosinophils and heterophils. We developed a hen egg white-based long-term ex vivo culture protocol which supported the survival and reproduction of A. galli for more than a week. Levamisole (LEV) and ivermectin (IVM) efficiently killed A. galli. However, albendazole (ABZ), mebendazole (MBZ), and piperazine (PPZ) did not kill the worms even at 120 μg/mL and 1mg/mL concentrations, respectively. Taken together, our results suggest that A. galli is highly prevalent in semiscavenging chickens in Bangladesh. Ascaridia galli can be easily maintained ex vivo in egg white supplemented M199 medium. LEV and IVM, but not ABZ, MBZ and PPZ, can be used for treating and controlling A. galli infections in chickens.

Anthelmintic drug resistance has proliferated across Europe in sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs). Sheep welfare and health are adversely impacted by these phenomena, which also have an impact on productivity. Finding alternatives for controlling GINs in sheep is thus of utmost importance. In this study, the anthelmintic effectiveness (AE) of a Calabrian ethnoveterinary aqueous macerate based on Punica granatum (whole fruits) was assessed in Comisana pregnant sheep. Furthermore, an examination, both qualitative and quantitative, was conducted on milk. Forty-five sheep were selected for the investigation. The sheep were divided by age, weight, physiological state (pluripara at 20 days before parturition), and eggs per gram of feces (EPG) into three homogeneous groups of 15 animals each: PG received a single oral dosage of P. granatum macerate at a rate of 50 mL per sheep; AG, treated with albendazole, was administered orally at 3.75 mg/kg/bw; and CG received no treatment. Timelines were as follows: D0, treatments, group assignment, fecal sampling, and AE assessment; D7, D14, D21, fecal sampling, and AE evaluation. The FLOTAC technique was used to evaluate the individual GIN fecal egg count (FEC) using a sodium chloride flotation solution (specific gravity = 1.20) and 100 × (1-[T2/C2]) as the formula for evaluating FEC reduction. Following the lambs' weaning, milk was collected on the following days (DL) in order to quantify production: DL35, DL42, DL49, DL56, DL63, DL70, DL77, and DL84. The amount of milk produced by every animal was measured and reported in milliliters (ml) for quantitative evaluations. Using MilkoScan TM fT + foss electric, Denmark, the quality of the milk (casein, lactose, protein concentration, and fat, expressed as a percentage) was assessed. The macerate demonstrated a considerable AE (51.8%). Moreover, its use has resulted in higher milk production rates quantitatively (15.5%) and qualitatively (5.12% protein, 4.12% casein, 4.21% lactose, and 8.18% fat). The study showed that green veterinary pharmacology could be the easiest future approach to counteracting anthelmintic resistance in sheep husbandry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although little information exists on the efficacy of deworming in wild ruminants, gastrointestinal nematodes have been found to demonstrate increasing drug resistance. The spread of drug-resistant strains may be increased by transmission among livestock and susceptible wildlife species, thus posing a potential threat to endangered species, such as the European bison.The aim of the study was twofold: to identify the parasite loads in captive European bison with the use of coprological techniques, and to test the influence of other nearby ungulates on the richness of bison parasitofauna. Additionally, the efficacy of deworming procedures against gastrointestinal nematodes in bison was evaluated. The survey was based on a coprological investigation of 285 fecal samples from 156 European bison in 15 enclosures.The parasitofauna of the captive European bison was consistent with those of free-ranging populations. The highest prevalence was noted for Eimeria spp. oocysts (60.7%), strongyle eggs (50.9%), Fasciola hepatica eggs (13.1%), Dictyocaulus viviparus larvae (12.3%) and Trichuris sp. Eggs (9.47%). Moreover, the close proximity of other ungulate species resulted in a higher diversity of parasite species.In all cases, deworming with albendazole, fenbendazole and ivermectin proved to be ineffective against strongylids and Trichuris sp. The results of fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) ranged from 37.2 to 99.6% (95% CI 95% (95% CI = 41–100) were noted for fenbendazole, and FECRT ranged from 63.2 to 97.5 (95% CI = 0–99) for ivermectin.As the results of anthelmintic treatment are unsatisfactory, it seems justified to continue study in this area. Our study is the first large-scale attempt to evaluate the efficacy of anthelminthics in captive European bison. The potential sharing of parasite species between bison and other ungulates should also be further investigated from the perspective of minimizing the risk of the spread of drug-resistant parasite strains.

The purpose of the research is to study the anthelmintic efficacy of decoctions of various parts of plants, as well as granules and essential oils of plants of the species İnula helenium L., Cichorium intybus L., Arctium lappa L. and Helichrysum araxinium Taxt ex Kirp of the family Compositae Cisece in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan.Materials and methods. Herbal preparations were tested on sheep spontaneously infected with gastrointestinal Strongylates. Decoctions of various parts of plants, as well as prepared granules and herbal essential oils were administered to the experimental animals in different doses. Sheep of the control group did not receive the drug. After the administration of the drugs, the condition of the animals was recorded. The drug efficacy was recorded at 5 days based on coproovoscopy results.Results and discussion. The decoctions of the tested plant species were found to have a high anthelmintic effect against nematodes parasitizing in the digestive tract of sheep. The efficacy of the decoctions prepared from roots and aerial parts of plants of the species I. helenium was 72–78%, the decoction efficacy from roots and aerial parts of the species C. Intybus was 70–76%, the decoction efficacy from roots and aerial parts of the species A. lappa was 69–71%, and the decoction efficacy from the aerial parts part of plants of the species H. araxinium was 74.6%. The anthelmintic effect of essential oils in the experiment was higher and reached 86.7 % from I. helenium, 85.1% from C. intybus, 80.8 % from A. lappa, and 83.5% from H. araxinium. The anthelmintic efficacy of the decoction from I. helenium mixed with C. intybus prepared from the aerial parts of plants was 72.4%, the decoction efficacy from H. araxinium mixed with A. lappa was 65.1, and the efficacy of the flour mixture from the roots of I. helenium, A. lappa and C. intybus was 71.9%.

Anthelmintic drug resistance has proliferated across Europe in sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs). Sheep welfare and health are adversely impacted by these phenomena, which also have an impact on productivity. Finding alternatives for controlling GINs in sheep is thus of utmost importance. In this study, the anthelmintic effectiveness (AE) of a Calabrian ethnoveterinary aqueous macerate based on Punica granatum (whole fruits) was assessed in Comisana pregnant sheep. Furthermore, an examination, both qualitative and quantitative, was conducted on milk. Forty-five sheep were selected for the investigation. The sheep were divided by age, weight, physiological state (pluripara at 20 days before parturition), and eggs per gram of feces (EPG) into three homogeneous groups of 15 animals each: PG received a single oral dosage of P. granatum macerate at a rate of 50 mL per sheep; AG, treated with albendazole, was administered orally at 3.75 mg/kg/bw; and CG received no treatment. Timelines were as follows: D0, treatments, group assignment, fecal sampling, and AE assessment; D7, D14, D21, fecal sampling, and AE evaluation. The FLOTAC technique was used to evaluate the individual GIN fecal egg count (FEC) using a sodium chloride flotation solution (specific gravity = 1.20) and 100 × (1-[T2/C2]) as the formula for evaluating FEC reduction. Following the lambs’ weaning, milk was collected on the following days (DL) in order to quantify production: DL35, DL42, DL49, DL56, DL63, DL70, DL77, and DL84. The amount of milk produced by every animal was measured and reported in milliliters (ml) for quantitative evaluations. Using MilkoScan TM fT + foss electric, Denmark, the quality of the milk (casein, lactose, protein concentration, and fat, expressed as a percentage) was assessed. The macerate demonstrated a considerable AE (51.8%). Moreover, its use has resulted in higher milk production rates quantitatively (15.5%) and qualitatively (5.12% protein, 4.12% casein, 4.21% lactose, and 8.18% fat). The study showed that green veterinary pharmacology could be the easiest future approach to counteracting anthelmintic resistance in sheep husbandry.

Ivermectin (IVM) is an anthelmintic compound commonly used off-label in mules due to its broad-spectrum of activity. Despite the general use of IVM in mules with the same dose and route of administration licensed for horses, significant pharmacokinetic differences might exist between horses and mules, as already observed for donkeys. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profile and anthelmintic efficacy of an oral paste of IVM in mules naturally infected with cyathostomins. Fifteen adult mules with fecal egg counts (FEC) ≥200 eggs per gram (EPG), with exclusive presence of cyathostomins, were included in the study. All mules were orally treated with IVM according to the manufacturers recommended horse dosage (200 µg/kg body weight). FECs were performed before (day-10 and day-3) and after treatment at days 14 and 28 by using a modified McMaster method. The FEC reduction (FECR%) was also calculated. Blood samples were collected from five animals at various times between 0.5 h up to 30 days post treatment to determine pharmacokinetic parameters. The maximum IVM serum concentration (Cmax) was 42.31 ± 10.20 ng/mL and was achieved at 16.80 ± 9.96 hours post-treatment (Tmax), area under the curve (AUC) was 135.56 ± 43.71 ng × day/mL. FECR% remained high (>95%) until the 28th day.

The comparative efficacy of combination of ricobendazole with ivermectin, fenbendazole with ivermectin, ivermectin and fenbendazole alone was examined against gastrointestinal nematodes at the University Goat Farm, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Pookode, Wayanad, Kerala. Faecal sample examination of 60 animals revealed the presence of eggs/ova of Trichuris, Strongyles and Strongyloides species. Out of these, 28 animals infected with gastrointestinal nematodes were selected for the study. The were treated with combination of ricobendazole with ivermectin (group A), fenbendazole with ivermectin (group B), ivermectin alone (group C) and fenbendazole alone (group D). Faecal eggs per gram (EPG) of the selected animals were evaluated at day 0, 7 and 14. The group A showed better effect on the Strongyle and Strongyloides species, whereas group B showed comparatively good results on Trichuris species in Malabari goats. The study concluded that combination of anthelmintic drugs could be used effectively for the treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes of goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although little information exists on the efficacy of deworming in wild ruminants, gastrointestinal nematodes have been found to demonstrate increasing drug resistance. The spread of drug-resistant strains may be increased by transmission among livestock and susceptible wildlife species, thus posing a potential threat to endangered species, such as the European bison. The aim of the study was twofold: to identify the parasite loads in captive European bison with the use of coprological techniques, and to test the influence of other nearby ungulates on the richness of bison parasitofauna. Additionally, the efficacy of deworming procedures against gastrointestinal nematodes in bison was evaluated. The survey was based on a coprological investigation of 285 fecal samples from 156 European bison in 15 enclosures. The parasitofauna of the captive European bison was consistent with those of free-ranging populations. The highest prevalence was noted for Eimeria spp. oocysts (60.7%), strongyle eggs (50.9%), Fasciola hepatica eggs (13.1%), Dictyocaulus viviparus larvae (12.3%) and Trichuris sp. Eggs (9.47%). Moreover, the close proximity of other ungulate species resulted in a higher diversity of parasite species. In all cases, deworming with albendazole, fenbendazole and ivermectin proved to be ineffective against strongylids and Trichuris sp. The results of fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) ranged from 37.2 to 99.6% (95% CI <90%) for albendazole; values >95% (95% CI = 41–100) were noted for fenbendazole, and FECRT ranged from 63.2 to 97.5 (95% CI = 0–99) for ivermectin. As the results of anthelmintic treatment are unsatisfactory, it seems justified to continue study in this area. Our study is the first large-scale attempt to evaluate the efficacy of anthelminthics in captive European bison. The potential sharing of parasite species between bison and other ungulates should also be further investigated from the perspective of minimizing the risk of the spread of drug-resistant parasite strains. [Display omitted] • Parasitofauna of captive European bison was similar to that of free-ranging populations. • The highest prevalence was noted for Eimeria spp. oocysts and strongyle eggs. • Close proximity of other ungulate species resulted in a higher diversity of European bison parasitofauna. • Fenbendazole, albendazole and ivermectin were not sufficiently effective against strongylids or Trichuris sp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, the exclusive use of commercial anthelmintics for the treatment of gastrointestinal nematode infections in ruminants is less sustainable due to anthelmintic resistance, as well as the problem of drug residues in animal products and the environment. Therefore, an integrated therapeutic approach is needed, including the search for alternatives to synthetic anthelmintic drugs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of using the essential oil of peppermint (Mentha x piperita L.) in the control of gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep. For this purpose, the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic efficacy of this oil and the toxic effects on the hosts were examined. In the in vitro egg hatch test, ovicidal activity varied from 21.0–90.3% depending on the concentration of essential oil used (0.0125, 0.025, 0.049, 0.195, 0.781, 3.125, 12.5, and 50 mg/mL). To some extent, anthelmintic efficacy was confirmed in the in vivo fecal egg count reduction test at a mean dose of 150 mg/kg, with an average reduction of nematode eggs of 26.9 and 46.0% at Days 7 and 14 after treatment, respectively. Furthermore, no toxic effects of applied oil were observed on sheep behavior, kidney, or liver function. The main compounds identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analyzes were menthol (32.6%), menthone (22.0%), menthyl-acetate (10.0%), and isomenthone (9.39%). Due to their complex chemical compositions, numerous bioactive ingredients, and natural origin, herbal formulations represent a potentially valuable alternative for the control of gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep. In this context, the results of the present study showed that peppermint essential oil is one of the promising candidates. Further studies should be performed to collect more data on the safety profile of M. piperita EO in treated animals to find the most appropriate formulation for use in field conditions and to test it against resistant gastrointestinal nematode populations.

Infections caused by gastrointestinal parasites have been described worldwide as one of the most important issues impacting small ruminant production. The systematic administration of anthelmintic (AH) drugs without following good practice principles has led to an increase in anthelmintic resistance (AR). There is scarce information regarding AH efficacy in small ruminants in Portugal. This study aimed to characterize by in vivo methods the presence and level of AR in four farms in the region of Lisbon and Tagus Valley. All four farms kept small herds in extensive management systems and used different deworming protocols. The active substances used were fenbendazole and a combination of mebendazole plus closantel in a dosage according to the manufacturers' instructions. On day 0 (T0), fecal samples were collected from all study animals, and animals in the treatment group (n = 40) were dewormed with the AH previously chosen by the assistant veterinarian. Animals in the control group (n = 30) did not receive any AH drug. The fecal sample collection was repeated on day 15 (T15), and the control group was treated. Egg counts were performed using the McMaster method for the eggs per gram (EPG), and AR was evaluated by the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) with a 95% confidence level (CL). The results from this experiment indicated that the four farms presented AR with two farms to fenbendazole (FECRT of 48% and 85%) and two farms to mebendazole plus closantel (FECRT of 66% and 79%). These results indicate that the gastrointestinal parasites of the four studied Portuguese farms are resistant to benzimidazoles, which suggests an increase in AR regarding nematodes in small ruminant production systems in Portugal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The spread of helminths resistant to the most common classes of anthelmintic drugs in sheep and the presence of drug residues in the environment has prompted research to find sustainable alternative solutions for gastrointestinal nematodes control. This study reports the results of in vivo studies on the efficacy of an aqueous Punica granatum-based macerate, used in southern Italy for the control of gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep. The anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated in parallel in sheep infected with gastrointestinal nematodes, using, as a positive control, the treatment with Ivermectin and Albendazole. The results of the study show a good anthelmintic efficacy, suggesting the use of this ethnoveterinary macerate as an alternative and sustainable therapeutical remedy for the helminthiasis control in the sheep. Parasites, in particular, gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) represent one of the main burdens affecting small ruminant farming and pose a serious threat to their health, welfare, productivity, and reproduction. The correct management of animals and the correct use of anthelmintic drugs are the pillars of the GIN control programs for small ruminants. However, globally due to the indiscriminate use of synthetic anthelmintics, there is a significant increase in anthelmintic resistance phenomena to one or more classes of drugs. Even if such a problem never represented a serious threat in southern Italy because of the favourable environmental conditions and because of the good farm management, the phenomenon is actually showing a steep increasing trend and requires alternative treatment measures and constant monitoring. The use of phytotherapies is considered a valuable alternative approach for GIN control in small ruminants and could help with reducing the amount of synthetic drugs used and the forthcoming anthelmintic resistance. From this perspective, the Calabria territory offers a wide number of plants with anthelmintic efficacy that could be helpful for this purpose. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthelmintic efficacy of aqueous pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) macerate compared to the treatment with Ivermectin and Albendazole in sheep naturally infected with GINs. The pomegranate macerate derives from the ethnoveterinary knowledge of the Calabria region, Southern Italy. The anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated according to the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRt) using the FLOTAC techniques in two sheep farms in Southern Italy. The FECR was calculated from individual samples using the formula FECR = 100 × (1 − [T2/C2]). The treatment with Albendazole in the first farm showed an efficacy of 99.8% after 14 days and 94.8% after 21 days, while the treatment with Ivermectin in the second farm showed an efficacy of 99.9% after 14 days and 96.5% after 21 days of treatment. The pomegranate macerate, in both farms, showed a value of efficacy of around 50% from day 7 to day 21 after the treatment. Previous studies highlighted the presence of gallic acid as the main component in the pomegranate macerate, and its efficacy in nematode control has been as well previously demonstrated in other plant extracts. This in vivo study demonstrated the unequivocal efficacy of plant macerate in easily reducing 50% of the number of GIN eggs in sheep faeces. These results, obtained without the use of synthetic anthelmintics, indicate the use of green veterinary pharmacology as a sustainable alternative to the use of synthetic drugs to reduce the increase in drug resistance phenomena and the environmental impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Aquaculture is an important source of animal protein. However, in recent years, with an intensification of farming, the risk of infectious diseases is increasing, especially the diseases caused by monogeneans, resulting in huge economic losses to aquaculture. Currently, the prevention and control of monogenean in fish mainly rely on some chemical drugs, such as formaldehyde, rotenone, and praziquantel. However, prolonged and frequent use of these chemicals leads to the occurrence of drug resistance, some adverse environmental impacts, and even contamination of fish products with drug residues. Therefore, it is urgent to develop efficient and environment-friendly drugs for the control of monogeneans in aquaculture. Natural plant-derived medicines are one of the alternative options. Therefore, in this study, anthelmintic efficacy of various essential oils was evaluated. The results indicated that palmarosa oil and curcuma oil showed potent anthelmintic activity against monogenean, and curcuma oil also had an anesthetic effect on monogenean. Moreover, these two essential oils displayed a high safety for fish. Therefore, palmarosa oil and curcuma oil could be viable alternatives for the prevention and control of monogenean infection in aquaculture. Monogeneans are a serious threat to the development of aquaculture due to the severe economic losses they cause. The prevention and treatment of this disease are increasingly difficult because of the environmental and health concerns caused by the use of chemical anthelmintics and the emergence of drug resistance. It is thus necessary to search for effective alternatives for the treatment of monogenean infections. In the current study, anthelmintic efficacy of 16 selected essential oils (EOs) was investigated using the goldfish (Carassius auratus)–Gyrodactylus kobayashii model. The screening experiment indicated that palmarosa oil and curcuma oil had satisfactory anthelmintic activity against G. kobayashii with EC100 values of 10 and 12 mg/L after 24-h exposure, respectively. The in vivo and in vitro assays indicated anthelmintic efficacy of palmarosa oil against G. kobayashii was in a time and dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, curcuma oil showed an anesthetic effect on G. kobayashii, and its anthelmintic activity was dose-dependent rather than time-dependent in the concentration range tested in this study. Additionally, the 24-h LC50 (50% lethal concentration) against goldfish of these two EOs was 8.19-fold and 5.54-fold higher than their corresponding EC50 (50% effective concentration) against G. kobayashii, respectively. Moreover, exposure to these two EOs at 100% effective concentration against G. kobayashii had no serious physiological and histopathological influence on goldfish. These results demonstrated a high safety for goldfish of these two EOs. Overall, palmarosa oil and curcuma oil could be potential candidates for the treatment of G. kobayashii infections in aquaculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Parasitic worms are a major threat to the health and production of sheep and goats worldwide, particularly because many worms have become resistant to commonly applied drugs. This problem is well known around the world, but the situation is currently not well studied in Germany. This study was therefore performed to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments against infection with gastrointestinal nematodes. Faecal samples from animal groups were examined before and after treatment, the worm eggs in the feaces were counted, and the reduction in egg excretion following treatment was calculated. Eggs of Haemonchus contortus (barber's pole worm) were stained to differentiate them from other gastrointestinal nematodes. Treatments were chosen and carried out by farmers together with their local veterinarian. Additional information was collected by questionnaires to check if the treatments were performed correctly. Reduced effectiveness was observed for all available drugs, but some showed better treatment success than others. The barber's pole worm frequently survived treatments by most products. The high percentage of treatment failures is highly concerning, and it is necessary to develop and/or apply alternative methods of worm control to prevent the deterioration of this situation. Widespread anthelmintic resistance is a concern for small ruminant health and production worldwide. The current situation regarding anthelmintic efficacy is, however, not very well studied in Germany. Thus, a nationwide field study was undertaken to assess the effectiveness of 253 treatments performed in 223 small ruminant flocks by faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) using pooled samples and a modified McMaster method. The percentage of Haemonchus contortus and non-Haemonchus eggs was determined by fluorescence microscopy following peanut agglutinin–fluorescein isothiocyanate staining. Treatments were chosen and performed by farmers together with their local veterinarian, and potentially confounding factors for FECRT results were addressed as far as possible by rigorous inclusion criteria. Reduced effectiveness was observed for treatments with all examined anthelmintic classes, but treatments with benzimidazoles and moxidectin showed significantly poorer results than monepantel, a closantel and mebendazole combination, and levamisole. Low case numbers precluded reliable assessment of avermectins. Unsuccessful treatments were frequently associated with the survival of H. contortus, but this was also observed for non-Haemonchus genera. The results are highly concerning, and sustainable approaches to parasite control are urgently needed to prevent further deterioration of this situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background With the increasing number of free-range domestic chickens, helminth parasites have potentially become more of a threat to commercial flocks in recent years, and routine poultry deworming is needed to improve the efficiency of chicken production. The present study deals with a field trial to study the efficacy of two generally used anthelmintics, fenbendazole and levamisole, against gastrointestinal nematodes of domestic chickens in northern Iran. Methods Of 45 domestic chicken flocks involved in the study, 20 flocks were selected to participate in fecal egg count reduction testing based on flock size from April 2017 to September 2018. The infected chickens were randomly divided into three equal groups of 30 each. Ninety chickens in the infected groups received one of the following treatments (d 0 of treatment): Group 1: 5 mg kg−1 body weight (BW) fenbendazole for 3 consecutive days; Group 2: 16 mg kg−1 BW levamisole; Group 3 control: placebo, water + DMSO (dimethylsulfoxide). The efficacy of the treatments was evaluated by comparing fecal egg counts in the treated and control groups. Results Examination of three flocks of chickens from the control group showed that 95.0% of the animals were infected with gastrointestinal nematodes with an average geometric value of 361 eggs per gram of feces. Fenbendazole at a dose of 5 mg kg−1 BW for 3 days showed an efficacy of 83.7% (P ≥ 0.05), and levamisole at a dose of 16 mg kg−1 BW showed 71.8% efficacy (P ≥ 0.05) with geometric mean eggs in a gram of feces of 100 and 199.6, respectively. In general, fenbendazole and levamisole treatment led to significantly lower activity. The result of this study revealed that fenbendazole was a better and more effective dewormer than levamisole on the three Iranian domestic chicken flocks, but the difference was not significant. Capillaria spp. were the most generally resistant nematodes followed by Trichostrongylus spp. and Amidostomum anseris. Conclusion Our results indicated that fenbendazole and levamisole effectively reduced the number of nemathodes in three Iranian domestic chicken flocks. Given the results of our study, resistance can be expected in the parasitic helminths of poultry. Additional larger scale studies are required to determine the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in the poultry industry.

Infections caused by gastrointestinal parasites have been described worldwide as one of the most important issues impacting small ruminant production. The systematic administration of anthelmintic (AH) drugs without following good practice principles has led to an increase in anthelmintic resistance (AR). There is scarce information regarding AH efficacy in small ruminants in Portugal. This study aimed to characterize by in vivo methods the presence and level of AR in four farms in the region of Lisbon and Tagus Valley. All four farms kept small herds in extensive management systems and used different deworming protocols. The active substances used were fenbendazole and a combination of mebendazole plus closantel in a dosage according to the manufacturers’ instructions. On day 0 (T0), fecal samples were collected from all study animals, and animals in the treatment group (n = 40) were dewormed with the AH previously chosen by the assistant veterinarian. Animals in the control group (n = 30) did not receive any AH drug. The fecal sample collection was repeated on day 15 (T15), and the control group was treated. Egg counts were performed using the McMaster method for the eggs per gram (EPG), and AR was evaluated by the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) with a 95% confidence level (CL). The results from this experiment indicated that the four farms presented AR with two farms to fenbendazole (FECRT of 48% and 85%) and two farms to mebendazole plus closantel (FECRT of 66% and 79%). These results indicate that the gastrointestinal parasites of the four studied Portuguese farms are resistant to benzimidazoles, which suggests an increase in AR regarding nematodes in small ruminant production systems in Portugal.

Background: With the increasing number of free-range domestic chickens, helminth parasites have potentially become more of a threat to commercial flocks in recent years, and routine poultry deworming is needed to improve the efficiency of chicken production. The present study deals with a field trial to study the efficacy of two generally used anthelmintics, fenbendazole and levamisole, against gastrointestinal nematodes of domestic chickens in northern Iran. Methods: Of 45 domestic chicken flocks involved in the study, 20 flocks were selected to participate in fecal egg count reduction testing based on flock size from April 2017 to September 2018. The infected chickens were randomly divided into three equal groups of 30 each. Ninety chickens in the infected groups received one of the following treatments (d 0 of treatment): Group 1: 5 mg kg−1 body weight (BW) fenbendazole for 3 consecutive days; Group 2: 16 mg kg−1 BW levamisole; Group 3 control: placebo, water + DMSO (dimethylsulfoxide). The efficacy of the treatments was evaluated by comparing fecal egg counts in the treated and control groups. Results: Examination of three flocks of chickens from the control group showed that 95.0% of the animals were infected with gastrointestinal nematodes with an average geometric value of 361 eggs per gram of feces. Fenbendazole at a dose of 5 mg kg−1 BW for 3 days showed an efficacy of 83.7% (P ≥ 0.05), and levamisole at a dose of 16 mg kg−1 BW showed 71.8% efficacy (P ≥ 0.05) with geometric mean eggs in a gram of feces of 100 and 199.6, respectively. In general, fenbendazole and levamisole treatment led to significantly lower activity. The result of this study revealed that fenbendazole was a better and more effective dewormer than levamisole on the three Iranian domestic chicken flocks, but the difference was not significant. Capillaria spp. were the most generally resistant nematodes followed by Trichostrongylus spp. and Amidostomum anseris. Conclusion: Our results indicated that fenbendazole and levamisole effectively reduced the number of nemathodes in three Iranian domestic chicken flocks. Given the results of our study, resistance can be expected in the parasitic helminths of poultry. Additional larger scale studies are required to determine the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance in the poultry industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resistance to anthelmintic drugs in gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of sheep is of high concern for livestock production worldwide. In Calabria (southern Italy), many plants have been used in ethnoveterinary medicine for parasite control in small ruminants. Here, we present an in vivo evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of three plant extracts. The first was based on bark and leaves of Salix caprea, the second and the third were based on the whole plant Artemisia campestris and whole fruit (seeds and peel) of Punica granatum, respectively. Anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated according to the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) performed with the FLOTAC technique. The results showed a significant anthelmintic effect of Punica granatum macerate (50%), a low effectiveness of the Artemisia campestris macerate (20%), and a complete ineffectiveness of Salix caprea macerate (0.1%). With these outcomes, we report a P. granatum-based remedy reducing 50% GIN egg output. This result was obtained without using any synthetic drug, paving the way for the employment of green veterinary pharmacology (GVP) as a complementary and sustainable method to reduce the use of chemicals and to counteract anthelmintic resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Santhal tribe in Assam, India utilize Sesbania sesban var. bicolor, Cyperus compressus and Asparagus racemosus to treat intestinal-worm infections. This study reports the in vitro anthelmintic efficacy of these plants against Gastrothylax crumenifer (Trematoda). The test parasites were exposed to 10, 20 and 30 mg/ml concentrations of each plant extract. The paralysis and mortality time of parasites were recorded and compared with a reference anthelmintic drug, praziquantel (PZQ). The paralysed worms were processed for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). All the plant extracts exhibited significant anti-worm activity in a dose-dependent manner and the activities were better than that of PZQ. The highest efficacy was observed for S. sesban var. bicolor, where exposure to 30 mg/ml methanol extract of the leaves caused parasite mortality within 1.02 ± 0.004 h. The SEM studies revealed adverse effects on tegument in the form of depressions around the sucker and acetabulum in parasites that were exposed to S. sesban var. bicolor and C. compressus extracts. Also, the tegument appeared wrinkled in parasites that were exposed to S. sesban var. bicolor and A. racemosus extracts. Collectively, this study showed considerably high trematocidal efficacy of the methanolic leaf extract of S. sesban var. bicolor and provides scientific evidence in support of its use in traditional medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: The development of resistance to anthelmintic drugs has prompted research into alternative methods of controlling intestinal nematodes in ruminants. This study aimed at evaluating the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic efficacy and toxicity of chitosan encapsulated bromelain in Small East African goats in Kenya. Materials and Methods: Adult mortality assay was performed using live Haemonchus contortus worms treated with encapsulated bromelain solution ranging from 0.125 mg/ml to 2 mg/ml. Percentage mortality of worms was calculated after 24 h and the lethal concentration 50% (LC50) determined. For the in vivo study, 18 healthy male indigenous goats were divided into six groups of three goats each. The encapsulated bromelain was orally administered in increasing dosages (3-30 mg kg) once daily, for 14 days. The packed cell volume (PCV), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), urea, creatinine, and fecal egg count (FEC) were determined on a weekly basis. At the end of the study, the goats were sacrificed and gross pathology and histopathology of main organs assessed. Results: Albendazole had the highest (p0.05), varied from 29.3% to 35.1%, and was within the normal range of the animal. Likewise, no significant differences (p>0.05) were observed between the AST, ALT, urea, and creatinine levels of treated and the control (non-treated) goats. No adverse clinical symptoms, toxicity of the main organs, and mortality in goats were associated with the chitosan encapsulated bromelain after administration of dose up to 30 mg/kg for 14 days. Therefore, the lethal dose 50 of encapsulated bromelain may be considered to be >30 mg/kg. On day 28 post-treatment, the encapsulated bromelain showed a higher in vivo FEC reduction (68.8%) as compared to the plain bromelain (32.4%). Conclusion: Our results show that bromelain encapsulated in chitosan may be safe and effective in reducing the burden of gastrointestinal tract strongyle nematodes in goats. However, there is a need for further studies to establish the dosage of the encapsulated bromelain to be administered in a single dose for the treatment of goats against gastrointestinal strongyles. In addition, species-specific studies on the efficacy of encapsulated bromelain on strongyles are necessary to evaluate its effectiveness against the entire Strongyloididae family.

Monogenean infection can cause high mortality and significant financial losses in commercially farmed fish. Existing chemical drugs for the treatment of such infections often have serious drawbacks. In order to find alternative agents of chemical drugs, fourteen medicinal plants were tested for their in vivo anthelmintic activity against Gyrodactylus kobayashii in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Ethanol extracts of Evodia rutaecarpa, Cnidium monnieri and Sophora flavescens had 100% anthelmintic efficacy at low concentrations (100, 100 and 300 mg/L, respectively), after 48 h of exposure. The ethyl acetate extract of C. monnieri was the most effective, with an EC50 value of 11.0 mg/L, after 48 h of exposure, showing 100% anthelmintic efficacy against G. kobayashii at 50.0 mg/L. Higher anthelmintic activity was also observed for remaining extracts of C. monnieri and E. rutaecarpa except for the water extracts of the two plants. The ethyl acetate extract of C. monnieri had the highest therapeutic index (TI, LC50/ EC50) value of 31.8, and the lowest EC50, which indicates that this extract was the safest to goldfish among all extracts. For the remaining extracts of C. monnieri and E. rutaecarpa, the 48-h LC50 values were about 10-fold higher than the corresponding EC50 values. This result indicates these extracts have low toxicity in goldfish. The ethyl acetate extract of C. monnieri was the most effective and the safest among the tested extracts. Therefore, the two plants are expected to be alternative agents to control monogenean infection.

Gyrodactylus spp. are common monogenean ectoparasites that may lead to significant fish mortality. To find effective anthelmintic agents with lower toxicity, a series of natural saponins were obtained and evaluated for their anthelmintic activity against Gyrodactylus kobayashii and acute toxicity to goldfish (Carassius auratus). Among all tested compounds, six compounds (1, 2, 3, 8, 10, and 13) shown higher anthelmintic activity and safety than widely used formaldehyde-based parasiticides, especially compound 1 having 100% anthelmintic efficacy against G. kobayashii at 0.3 mg/L and a therapeutic index of 16.6. Also, the three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) studies of these saponins have been performed to explore the structural features reasonable for the anthelmintic activity against G. kobayashii. These models demonstrated that the hydroxyl group at C-17 position and the sugar moieties at C-3 position, especially the hydroxyl groups of the sugar moieties, were critical to the anthelmintic activity. The QSAR studies could provide useful information for further rational design and optimization of novel saponins for the control of gyrodactylosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Semi-intensive equine breeding system favors gastrointestinal nematode infections. The treatment of these infections is based on the use of anthelmintics. However, the inappropriate use of these drugs has led to parasitic resistance to the available active principles. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the main classes of antiparasitic (ATP) used in control in adult and young animals, including: benzimidazoles (fenbendazole), pyrimidines (pyrantel pamoate), macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin and moxidectin), as well as the combination of active ingredients (ivermectin + pyrantel pamoate). The study was carried out in two military establishments, located in Rio Grande do Sul (RS), from January to December, 2018. The intervals between the treatments of the animals were performed from 30 to 90 days. Coproparasitological evaluations were determined by the egg count reduction in the faeces. Cyatostomine larvae were identified in pre and post-treatment cultures. The results demonstrated the multiple parasitic resistance of cyathostomins to fenbendazole, moxidectin in young animals, and to fenbendazole, pyrantel pamoate in adult animals. Thus, it is necessary to define or diagnose parasitic resistance to assist in the creation of prophylactic parasitic control, using suppressive treatment with ATP associated with integrated alternatives. The progress of parasitic resistance can be slowed.

The widespread prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections has an important impact on livestock affecting of meat, milk, traction and manure in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The present study was aimed to monitor the efficacy of commonly available anthelmintic drugs at publicly owned sheep farms. The sheep naturally infected with nematodes were selected, aged between 10 to 18 months, for field efficacy trial. Selected sheep were divided into five groups (15 animals each group) based on their equal egg per gram (EPG) and body weight. Group-I served as control (untreated), while Group-II was treated with albendazole at the recommended rate of 8.8 mL/100 kg of body weight by oral drench, Group-III was treated with levamisole at the rate of 4.4 mL per 100 kg body weight, Group-IV was treated with ivermectin, 200 μg of ivermectin per kilogram of body weight and Group-V was treated with mixture of levamisole and ivermectin at the rate of 10 mg/kg by injecting subcutaneous, respectively. The results revealed that the highest efficacy rate (88.25%) was observed in sheep treated with mixture of levamisole and ivermectin, followed by ivermectin (86.43%), levamisole (81.32%), and albendazole (51.11%), respectively. The data has indicated that nematodes (Haemonchus contortus as the predominant species followed by Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus axei and Oesophagostomum columbianum) might have developed resistance against the major anthelmintic drugs, encountered throughout this trial. Overall results showed that anthelmintic resistance resulted because non-judicial use anthelmintic drugs without considering the epidemiological knowledge related to occurrence of commonly nematode parasites.

This study was carried out to assess the management practices used in the control of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes of horses and to determine the efficacy of three anthelmintics commonly used in Sokoto metropolis. A questionnaire was administered on management practices, while an anthelmintic efficacy test was carried out using 15 horses. The 15 horses were divided into three groups (A, B and C) comprising of 5 each and treated with albendazole, ivermectin and fenbendazole, respectively. The faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was used to determine the efficacy and faecal culture was used to determine the parasite species. Majority of the respondents (80%) claimed to have worm control strategies, but only 32.5% used anthelmintics for the control of GI parasites. 62.5% of respondents designed their deworming plan, while only 25% relied on veterinarians. Most of the treatments were done by the horse owners and/or handlers and they largely depended on visual judgement in dosage determination. Their selection of anthelmintics was based on familiarity and 52.5% of the respondents dewormed their horses six times a year using a particular class of anthelmintic or herbal remedies. Resistance against albendazole as well as suspected resistance against fenbendazole by the GI nematodes identified was observed, while ivermectin demonstrated high efficacy against all nematodes isolated. In conclusion, a single dose of subcutaneous injection of ivermectin was highly effective against gastrointestinal parasites in horses, while the worm control strategies employed by respondents enhanced the selection of nematode resistance to albendazole and fenbendazole.

This study was carried out to evaluate the comparative efficacy of closantel and Azadirachta indica seed powder against strongyle infection in goats. Infected goats having >500 eggs per gram of faeces were included in the present study and divided into three groups (A, B, and C) of six goats each. Group A animals were treated with closantel @ 10 mg/kg b.wt., Group-B with neem seed powder @ 4 g/kg b.wt, Group C with neem seed powder @ 8 g/kg b.wt. Number of eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) were recorded on day 0 (before treatment), 7, 14, 21 and 28 day (post treatment). On the basis of EPG values, it was observed that closantel had more efficacy than neem seed powder as percent reduction in EPG was higher in closantel treated goats (91.12%) as compared to neem seed powder @ 8 g/kg body weight treated goats (62.49%). The efficacy of neem seed powder @ 4 g/kg b.wt was 38.09%. Thus, it was concluded that higher dose of neem seed powder has effective against strongyle infection in goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is the leading cause of eosinophilic meningitis worldwide, with life-threatening complications if not managed correctly. Previous in vitro studies have utilized change in motility patterns of adult female worms to assess the efficacy of anthelmintics qualitatively. However, it is the third stage larvae (L3) that are infectious to humans. With differential staining using propidium iodide penetration as the indicator of death, we can distinguish between dead and live larvae. This assay has enabled us to quantify the in vitro efficacy of nine clinically established anthelmintics on A. cantonensis L3. All drugs were tested at a 1 mm concentration. Piperazine and niclosamide were ineffective in inducing larval death; however, albendazole sulfoxide, pyrantel pamoate, diethylcarbamazine, levamisole and praziquantel were effective as compared to unexposed controls (P < 0.05). Ivermectin and moxidectin did not induce significant levels of mortality, but they considerably reduced larval motility almost immediately. This study indicates the need for further in vivo studies to determine the optimal dose and time frame for post-infection treatment with anthelmintics that demonstrated efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to investigate the distribution of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites and their control in sheep and goats of the three villages of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Faecal samples (n=347 each) were analyzed through McMaster egg counting technique. The comparative efficacy of the oral formulations of ivermectin (KEPROMAC ORAL® Holland) and levamisole (Nilverm® Pakistan) was evaluated at the recommended doses. Faecal samples were obtained directly from the recta at 1st, 7th, 14th and 21st day after treatment. The overall prevalence of the GI parasites was 81.27% in sheep and 54.47% in goats. Intrinsic determinants like age, sex and breed were found significantly (P=0.05) associated. Among various husbandry practices; grazing, hygienic conditions, housing systems, floor pattern and animal keeping system have shown significant effects (P=0.05). The post treatment Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) indicated reduction of eggs up to day 14 followed by increase at 21st day in both species. The efficacy of ivermectin was higher as compared to levamisole-treated group. However, the treated groups indicated significant reduction as compared to untreated control. The study provided the better choice of drug for preventive and/or therapeutic management of GI parasitism in sheep and goat populations of the selected villages of Faisalabad district, Punjab, Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helminths have been a serious trouble for the farmers due to their adverse effects on small ruminant production. Hemonchus contortus (H. contortus) and Fasciola hepatica (F. hepatica) are highly pathogenic and pose serious threat in co-existence. Because of increasing threat of anthelmintic resistance, alternative methods are being investigated and the herbal remedies stand the most prominent due to their efficacy and availability. Anthelmintic activity of the herbal mixture was evaluated in goats. Adult goats were selected at Livestock Production and Research Centre (LPRI) Bahadarnagar, Okara and were examined for helminth eggs in their feces. Twenty-four goats having almost similar egg per gram (EPG) of feces values of H. contortus and F. hepatica were selected and allocated to four groups of equal size. Herbal mixture was administered at dose rate of 1400, 1200 and 1000 mg/kg to each member of groups G1, G2 and G3, respectively on day 0, 7, 14 and 21 of the trials, while group G4 served as negative control receiving no medicine/herbal mixture. Trials continued for 30 days and data about EPG, fecal egg count reduction, complete blood count and serum biochemistry were collected before administration of herbal mixture at day 15 and day 30 of trial while animals were weighed before initiation of trial (day 0) and at the end of trial (day 30). All treatments showed a significant reduction in fecal egg count as compared to control group. Maximum fecal egg count reduction was observed in animals of group G1, which is 91.35% for H. contortus and 82.35% for F. hepatica. There was a slight increase in weight gain ratio of the treated animals in respective decreasing order with G1 having highest weight gain. An increase in erythrocyte count, pack cell volume and hemoglobin concentration was recorded while non-significant effect was observed on serum parameters. The results of this trial suggested that herbal dewormer is effective and can be an option for integrated management strategies for nematodes and trematodes control in the goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbal products such as essential oils may play a promising role in the treatment of infections caused by gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs). The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro potential of 11 essential oils (EOs) and one binary combination of isolated EO compounds, as well as the in vivo anthelmintic efficacy of two EO formulations. Four GIN genera were identified in the coproculture examination: Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Teladorsagia and Chabertia. The in vitro egg hatch test (EHT) was performed at six different concentrations (50, 12.5, 3.125, 0.781, 0.195 and 0.049 mg/mL) for each EO, whereas in the in vivo faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT), each EO sample was diluted in sunflower oil and orally administrated at a dose of 100 mg/kg to the different group of animals. In the EHT, the EOs of Origanum vulgare, Foeniculum vulgare, Satureja montana, Satureja hortensis and two types of Thymus vulgaris were the most effective. The dominant compounds of these EOs were carvacrol, thymol, anethol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene, indicating their importance for the anthelmintic activity. In the FECRT, both T. vulgaris EO type 1 and linalool:estragole combination show an anthelmintic potential with a mean effect on FECR of approximately 25%. The results suggest the possible role of tested EOs as anthelmintic agents in sheep farms, although further in vivo tests are needed.

Resistance to anthelmintic drugs in gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of sheep is of high concern for livestock production worldwide. In Calabria (southern Italy), many plants have been used in ethnoveterinary medicine for parasite control in small ruminants. Here, we present an in vivo evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of three plant extracts. The first was based on bark and leaves of Salix caprea, the second and the third were based on the whole plant Artemisia campestris and whole fruit (seeds and peel) of Punica granatum, respectively. Anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated according to the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) performed with the FLOTAC technique. The results showed a significant anthelmintic effect of Punica granatum macerate (50%), a low effectiveness of the Artemisia campestris macerate (20%), and a complete ineffectiveness of Salix caprea macerate (0.1%). With these outcomes, we report a P. granatum-based remedy reducing 50% GIN egg output. This result was obtained without using any synthetic drug, paving the way for the employment of green veterinary pharmacology (GVP) as a complementary and sustainable method to reduce the use of chemicals and to counteract anthelmintic resistance.

Abstract Background Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections are the main impediments that restrict the welfare and productivity of small ruminant in the world. Effective management of GINs in grazing sheep relies heavily on the use of highly efficacious anthelmintic drugs. However, anthelmintic resistance is becoming a significant concern in the world, and this phenomenon severely threatens the potential utilisation of this control strategy. Therefore, this study was conducted 1) to evaluate the efficacy of commonly used anthelmintic on GINs in naturally infected sheep and 2) to assess the farmers’ perception on anthelmintics utilisation practices in Dabat district, Northwest Ethiopia. Methods One hundred twenty nematode infected sheep were used in this study. Sheep were selected based on the egg count (≥150 eggs per gram of faeces). The animals were allocated randomly into four groups (30 animals per group). Group-I, II and III were treated with Albendazole, Tetramisole, and Ivermectin, respectively. The 4th group was left untreated (as control). Faecal samples were collected on day 0 (before treatment), on day 3, 7, 10 and 14 (post-treatment). The modified McMaster technique was used for quantifying the eggs. Faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was applied to determine the efficacy of anthelmintic at day 14 (post-treatment). In addition, a questionnaire survey was conducted on 100 randomly selected sheep owners. Results All anthelmintics tested revealed significant (P 0.05) among the treatment groups. The nematode genera identified before treatment were Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Trichuris, Teladorsagia, Bunostomum, and Strongyloides. Haemonchus and Trichostrongylus were detected after treatment with Albendazole and Ivermectin. The questionnaire survey revealed that Albendazole was the most commonly (90%) used anthelmintic to treat nematodes in sheep, followed by Tetramisole (36%) and Tetraclozan (Tetramisole-Oxyclozanide combination) (20%). Respondents expressed that anthelmintic selection was made based on veterinarian prescription (84%), colour (27%), efficacy (4%), price affordability (1%) and availability (1%). Conclusion This study demonstrated that the tested anthelmintics had an acceptable level of efficacy against GINs of sheep.

The Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) is the most widely used field-based method for estimating anthelmintic efficacy and as an indicator of the presence of anthelmintic resistant nematodes in cattle, despite never having been validated against the gold standard of controlled slaughter studies. The objectives of this study were to assess the normality of cattle faecal egg count (FEC) data and their transformed versions, since confidence intervals used to aid the interpretation of the FECRT, are derived from data assumed to be normally distributed, and violation of this assumption could potentially lead to the misclassification of anthelmintic efficacy. Further, probability distributions and associated parameters were evaluated to determine those most appropriate for representing cattle FEC data, which could be used to estimate percentage reductions and confidence limits. FEC data were analysed from 2175 cattle on 52 farms using a McMaster method at two different diagnostic sensitivities (30 and 15 eggs per gram (epg)) and a sensitive centrifugal flotation technique (SCFT) with a sensitivity of 1 epg. FEC data obtained from all egg count methods were found to be non-normal even upon transformation; therefore, it would be recommended that confidence or credible intervals be generated using either a Bootstrapping or Bayesian approach, respectively, since analyses using these frameworks do not necessarily require the assumption of normality. FEC data obtained using the SCFT method were best represented by distributions associated with the negative binomial and hence arithmetic means could be used in FECRT calculations. Where FEC data were obtained with less sensitive counting techniques (i.e. McMaster 30 or 15 epg), zero-inflated distributions and their associated central tendency were the most appropriate and would be recommended to use, i.e. the arithmetic group mean divided by the proportion of non-zero counts present; otherwise apparent anthelmintic efficacy could be misrepresented.

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Monogenean parasites pose a significant challenge to aquaculture, leading to adverse effects on fish health and yields. Current anthelmintic treatments for monogeneans have demonstrated limited efficacy and are further complicated by potential issues, which emphasize the necessity for effective and safe therapeutic strategies to manage monogeneans in aquaculture. In this study, in vivo and in vitro anthelmintic activity of febantel against Gyrodactylus kobayashii on goldfish (Carassius auratus), as well as its toxicity to goldfish were evaluated. In vivo assays indicated that febantel exhibited potent anthelmintic activity against G. kobayashii with an EC 50 value of 0.03 mg/L and 100 % anthelmintic efficacy at 0.1 mg/L after 48 h of exposure. Moreover, in vivo trials also revealed a notable post-treatment effect of febantel, where infected goldfish transferred to drug-free water after short 6-h exposure could still result in full eradication of the worms, indicating febantel might induce persistent perturbations in parasite physiology. In vitro assays showed a negative correlation between febantel concentrations and the survival of G. kobayashii. However, increasing the febantel concentration to 2.0 mg/L did not result in the complete death of all worms. Oral administration of febantel demonstrated limited anthelmintic activity, with only 49 % efficacy at a dosage of 200 mg/kg body weight daily over five days. Acute toxicity assays revealed the 48-h LC 50 value of febantel was 5.47 mg/L, which was 182.23 times higher than the 48-h EC 50 value, indicating that febantel has a favorable safety profile. However, febantel exposure potentially interfered with hepatic metabolism and oxidative status, as indicated by variations in SOD, GST, and P450 gene expression. In conclusion, treatment with 0.1 mg/L febantel for 24 h completely eradicated G. kobayashii infection on goldfish, demonstrating febantel's potent anthelmintic activity. Coupled with its safety profile and extended post-treatment effectiveness, febantel is a promising candidate for controlling Gyrodactylus infections in aquaculture. • Febantel showed potent anthelmintic efficacy against Gyrodactylus kobayashii with an EC 50 value of 0.03 mg/L. • A notable post-treatment effect of febantel against G. kobayashii was observed. • Febantel has a favorable safety profile. • Febantel is a promising candidate for controlling Gyrodactylus infections in aquaculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gyrodactylosis causes fish to be infected by other harmful pathogens, resulting in high mortality rates and serious economic losses to the aquaculture industry. Currently, unapproved chemicals are the main reliance for gyrodactylosis treatment, which is not always satisfactory. Targeted selection of compounds that destroy the epidermal structure of the parasite becomes an ideal strategy for parasites control. Therefore, glacial acetic acid (GAA) was found to have the ability to corrode the body surface of the parasite and thus achieve an antiparasitic effect. Next, we evaluated the anthelmintic activity of GAA, the maximum anthelmintic activity of 0.005% GAA for 48 h was 89%, and 0.01% GAA completely killed all Gyrodactylus kobayashii in 40 min. Further research involved evaluating water quality parameters and mRNA expression patterns of xenobiotics sensitive genes, ultimately selecting the treatment method of 0.01% for 40 min followed by transferring the goldfish to normal water for further study. In vitro experiments and scanning electron microscopy results revealed that GAA inhibits parasite activity and ultimately leads to parasite death by disrupting the structure of the parasite's body surface. Overall, these findings suggest that GAA could be a promising alternative compound for controlling Gyrodactylus infections and targeted disruption of the worm's body surface structure is an effective strategy for eliminating the parasite. • Targeted destruction of the epidermis of Gyrodactylus kobayashii is an effective way to screen for drugs. • The use of glacial acetic acid for the control of Gyrodactylus kobayashii is proposed. • 40 mins glacial acetic acid baths at concentrations of 0.01% are effective in the control of Gyrodactylus kobayashii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worldwide increased difficulty to counteract gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection in sheep, due to progressing anthelmintic resistance, has led to the evaluation of other alternative helminth control options, mainly from plants. The anthelmintic efficacy of an aqueous Punica granatum macerate was evaluated in sheep naturally infected by GIN in southern Italy. The macerate was chemically characterized by chromatographic analysis coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC/HRMS) and an aliquot was concentrated to obtain a dry extract. A part was characterized, the remaining washed with methanol to obtain an insoluble residue and methanol phase. In the methanol fraction, the quantitatively predominant gallic acid was purified to obtain the pure molecule. The three fractions thus obtained were used for in vitro studies (i.e., egg hatch test) to verify anthelmintic efficacy. For this purpose, fecal samples were collected from sheep naturally infected by GINs. Fractions were diluted in H2O/DMSO 0.5% at 1.00, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, 0.05, and 0.005 mg/mL concentrations. Thiabendazole (0.25 and 0.5 mg/mL) and deionized water were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Egg hatch test results indicated that all fractions caused a significant (p < 0.05) egg hatch inhibition within 48 h of exposure highlighting a high (>82%) efficacy in vitro at all tested doses. Maximal egg hatching inhibition effect was exhibited by the methanol fraction (99.3% and 89.3% at 1 and 0.005 mg/mL concentrations), followed by the insoluble residue and gallic acid (94.7% and 85.3% and 94.0% and 82.7% at 1 and 0.005 mg/mL, respectively). The current study validated the anthelmintic potential of traditional P. granatum macerate against GIN infection in sheep, thus highlighting the role of gallic acid as principal component and justifying a need to undertake further in vivo studies on these ethno-veterinary remedies.

Ivermectin (IVM) is an anthelmintic compound commonly used off-label in mules due to its broad-spectrum of activity. Despite the general use of IVM in mules with the same dose and route of administration licensed for horses, significant pharmacokinetic differences might exist between horses and mules, as already observed for donkeys. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profile and anthelmintic efficacy of an oral paste of IVM in mules naturally infected with cyathostomins. Fifteen adult mules with fecal egg counts (FEC) ≥ 200 eggs per gram (EPG), with exclusive presence of cyathostomins, were included in the study. All mules were orally treated with IVM according to the manufacturer's recommended horse dosage (200 µg/kg body weight). FECs were performed before (day-10 and day-3) and after treatment at days 14 and 28 by using a modified McMaster method. The FEC reduction (FECR%) was also calculated. Blood samples were collected from five animals at various times between 0.5 h up to 30 days post treatment to determine pharmacokinetic parameters. The maximum IVM serum concentration (Cmax) was 42.31 ± 10.20 ng/mL and was achieved at 16.80 ± 9.96 h post-treatment (Tmax), area under the curve (AUC) was 135.56 ± 43.71 ng × day/mL. FECR% remained high (>95%) until the 28th day.

Although various studies have provided novel insights into how to best design, analyze and interpret a fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT), it is still not straightforward to provide guidance that allows improving both the standardization and the analytical performance of the FECRT across a variety of both animal and nematode species. For example, it has been suggested to recommend a minimum number of eggs to be counted under the microscope (not eggs per gram of feces), but we lack the evidence to recommend any number of eggs that would allow a reliable assessment of drug efficacy. Other aspects that need further research are the methodology of calculating uncertainty intervals (UIs; confidence intervals in case of frequentist methods and credible intervals in case of Bayesian methods) and the criteria of classifying drug efficacy into ‘normal’, ‘suspected’ and ‘reduced’. The aim of this study is to provide complementary insights into the current knowledge, and to ultimately provide guidance in the development of new standardized guidelines for the FECRT. First, data were generated using a simulation in which the ‘true’ drug efficacy (TDE) was evaluated by the FECRT under varying scenarios of sample size, analytic sensitivity of the diagnostic technique, and level of both intensity and aggregation of egg excretion. Second, the obtained data were analyzed with the aim (i) to verify which classification criteria allow for reliable detection of reduced drug efficacy, (ii) to identify the UI methodology that yields the most reliable assessment of drug efficacy (coverage of TDE) and detection of reduced drug efficacy, and (iii) to determine the required sample size and number of eggs counted under the microscope that optimizes the detection of reduced efficacy. Our results confirm that the currently recommended criteria for classifying drug efficacy are the most appropriate. Additionally, the UI methodologies we tested varied in coverage and ability to detect reduced drug efficacy, thus a combination of UI methodologies is recommended to assess the uncertainty across all scenarios of drug efficacy estimates. Finally, based on our model estimates we were able to determine the required number of eggs to count for each sample size, enabling investigators to optimize the probability of correctly classifying a theoretical TDE while minimizing both financial and technical resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Haemonchosis is a common problem on goat farms in tropical countries such as Malaysia. Prevention of production losses generally depends on the use of anthelmintic drugs, but is threatened by the emergence of anthelmintic resistance. This study investigates anthelmintic efficacy on small-scale Malaysian goat farms and describes putative risk factors. Adult goats had moderate to high pre-treatment faecal trichostrongyle egg counts, despite being housed on slatted floors and fed on cut-and-carry forage, raising questions about the source of nematode infection. Our results show multiple resistance to benzimidazole and macrocyclic lactone anthelmintic drugs and allow us to discuss the genetic origins of resistance with reference to farm husbandry and management. We conclude that improvement in Malaysian goat production efficiency will require the development of sustainable helminth control strategies, underpinned by a better understanding of the origins and population genetics of anthelmintic resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to assess the management practices used in the control of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes of horses and to determine the efficacy of three anthelmintics commonly used in Sokoto metropolis. A questionnaire was administered on management practices, while an anthelmintic efficacy test was carried out using 15 horses. The 15 horses were divided into three groups (A, B and C) comprising of 5 each and treated with albendazole, ivermectin and fenbendazole, respectively. The faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was used to determine the efficacy and faecal culture was used to determine the parasite species. Majority of the respondents (80%) claimed to have worm control strategies, but only 32.5% used anthelmintics for the control of GI parasites. 62.5% of respondents designed their deworming plan, while only 25% relied on veterinarians. Most of the treatments were done by the horse owners and/or handlers and they largely depended on visual judgement in dosage determination. Their selection of anthelmintics was based on familiarity and 52.5% of the respondents dewormed their horses six times a year using a particular class of anthelmintic or herbal remedies. Resistance against albendazole as well as suspected resistance against fenbendazole by the GI nematodes identified was observed, while ivermectin demonstrated high efficacy against all nematodes isolated. In conclusion, a single dose of subcutaneous injection of ivermectin was highly effective against gastrointestinal parasites in horses, while the worm control strategies employed by respondents enhanced the selection of nematode resistance to albendazole and fenbendazole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics and the anthelmintic efficacy of eprinomectin (Eprecis ® 20 mg/mL) following subcutaneous administration to goats. Forty non-lactating female Alpine goats aged between one and three years and weighing between 32.7 and 59.5 kg, were randomly allocated to one of the following groups (8 animals per group): two groups were not infected and were treated at a dose of either 0.2 or 0.4 mg/kg BW of eprinomectin, two groups were experimentally infected with nematodes and treated at 0.2 or 0.4 mg/kg BW of eprinomectin similarly and one group was infected and left untreated (control). Infection consisted in a single and simultaneous administration of 5000 Haemonchus contortus and 12,500 Trichostrongylus colubriformis infective larvae. No local or general adverse reaction was visually observed whatever the dose rate. The maximal plasma concentrations (C max ) were 20.68 ± 12.85 vs 39.79 ± 17.25 μg/L and the plasma bioavailabilities (AUC) 83.45 ± 34.75 vs 169.37 ± 43.44 μg*d/L for 0.2 vs 0.4 mg/kg respectively. The efficacy against H. contortus and T. colubriformis was 97.8 and 98.7% at 0.2 mg/kg and 98.4% and >99.9% at 0.4 mg/kg respectively. The differences in worm burdens between the two dose rates were only significant for T. colubriformis . These results indicate that injectable eprinomectin is a potent anthelmintic against the two major gastrointestinal nematodes in goats. Additional information is needed regarding pharmacokinetics in lactating goats and milk residues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) is the most widely used field-based method for estimating anthelmintic efficacy and as an indicator of the presence of anthelmintic resistant nematodes in cattle, despite never having been validated against the gold standard of controlled slaughter studies. The objectives of this study were to assess the normality of cattle faecal egg count (FEC) data and their transformed versions, since confidence intervals used to aid the interpretation of the FECRT, are derived from data assumed to be normally distributed, and violation of this assumption could potentially lead to the misclassification of anthelmintic efficacy. Further, probability distributions and associated parameters were evaluated to determine those most appropriate for representing cattle FEC data, which could be used to estimate percentage reductions and confidence limits. FEC data were analysed from 2175 cattle on 52 farms using a McMaster method at two different diagnostic sensitivities (30 and 15 eggs per gram (epg)) and a sensitive centrifugal flotation technique (SCFT) with a sensitivity of 1 epg. FEC data obtained from all egg count methods were found to be non-normal even upon transformation; therefore, it would be recommended that confidence or credible intervals be generated using either a Bootstrapping or Bayesian approach, respectively, since analyses using these frameworks do not necessarily require the assumption of normality. FEC data obtained using the SCFT method were best represented by distributions associated with the negative binomial and hence arithmetic means could be used in FECRT calculations. Where FEC data were obtained with less sensitive counting techniques (i.e. McMaster 30 or 15 epg), zero-inflated distributions and their associated central tendency were the most appropriate and would be recommended to use, i.e. the arithmetic group mean divided by the proportion of non-zero counts present; otherwise apparent anthelmintic efficacy could be misrepresented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]