Search

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is well-known to show poor specific antibody responses after immunization, despite having high natural IgM levels. Unlike mammals and nearly all examined other vertebrates, cod lack the MHC II-CD4 axis required for T cell-dependent (TD) antibody responses. We evaluated the cod's antibody response to hapten carriers inducing T cell-independent (TI) and TD responses in mammals. Remarkably, cod generated strong hapten-specific IgM levels against hapten linked to the TI-2 antigens ficoll or dextran. Specific IgM levels plateaued 6-9 weeks after a single immunization and remained stable for six months. The serum half-life of IgM was 4 days, indicating continuous IgM production during this period. These findings reveal unique immune mechanisms in Atlantic cod, enhancing our understanding of vertebrate immunology and aiding the development of novel vaccination strategies in aquaculture., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Marginal zone B cells (MZBs) represent a unique B-cell sub-population that rapidly differentiate into IgM-secreting plasma cells in response to T-independent (T-I) antigen. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) promotes MZB localization to the marginal zone. However, intracellular molecules involved in MZB localization and migration remain largely unknown. Here, we show that MZBs lacking the glia maturation factor-γ (GMFG) are impaired in chemotaxis toward S1P under both in vitro and in vivo conditions, suggesting that GMFG is an effector downstream of S1P receptors. GMFG undergoes serine phosphorylation upon S1P stimulation and is required for S1P-induced desensitization of S1P receptor 1 (S1PR1). Compared with wild-type mice, Gmfg-/- mice produce elevated levels of 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl-acetyl (NP)-specific IgM against a T-I type II antigen, NP-Ficoll, accompanied by dysregulated MZB localization. These results identify GMFG as a regulator of S1P-induced MZB chemotaxis and reveal a role for MZB localization in the marginal zone for optimal IgM production against a T-I antigen., (© The Japanese Society for Immunology. 2021. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The roles distinct B cell subsets play in clonal expansion, isotype switching, and memory B cell differentiation in response to T cell-independent type 2 Ags (TI-2 Ags) has been understudied. Using sorted B cells from V H B1-8 knock-in mice, we evaluated B-1b, marginal zone, and follicular B cell responses to the TI-2 Ag, NP-Ficoll. All subsets extensively divided in response to NP-Ficoll. Nonetheless, B-1b cells exhibited significantly increased IgG switching and differentiation into Ab-secreting cells (ASC)-a finding that coincided with increased AgR signaling capacity and Blimp1 expression by B-1b cells. All subsets formed memory cells and expressed markers previously identified for T cell-dependent memory B cells, including CD80, PDL2, and CD73, although B-1b cells generated the greatest number of memory cells with higher frequencies of IgG- and CD80-expressing cells. Despite memory formation, secondary immunization 4 wk after primary immunization did not increase NP-specific IgG. However, boosting occurred in B-1b cell-recipient mice when IgG levels declined. CD80 + memory B-1b cells divided, class switched, and differentiated into ASC in response to Ag in vivo, but this was inhibited in the presence of NP-specific IgG. Furthermore, CD80 blockade significantly increased memory B-1b cell division and differentiation to ASC upon Ag restimulation. Collectively, these findings demonstrate B-1b, marginal zone B, and follicular B subsets significantly contribute to the TI-2 Ag-specific memory B cell pool. In particular, we show B-1b cells generate a functional CD80-regulated memory population that can be stimulated to divide and differentiate into ASC upon Ag re-encounter when Ag-specific IgG levels decline., (Copyright © 2020 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.)

Despite the strong demand for orally-delivered fish vaccines and the deficient response of those currently available in the market, little is known about how teleost B cells differentiate to antibody secreting cells (ASCs) in response to antigens delivered to the intestinal mucosa. To fill this gap, in the current study, we have studied the dynamics of B cell differentiation in spleen and kidney of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) anally immunized with antigens catalogued in mammals as thymus dependent (TD) or thymus-independent (TI). Our results show that, in the absence of additional adjuvants, rainbow trout preferentially responded to a model TI antigen such as TNP-LPS (2,4,6-trinitrophenyl hapten conjugated to lipopolysaccharide). The anal administration of TNP-LPS elicited TNP-specific serum antibodies, and a significant increase in the number of total and TNP-specific ASCs in both spleen and kidney, being the kidney the site where most ASCs are found at later time points. In the spleen, a proliferative response of both IgM + B and T cells was also clearly visible, while the proliferative response was weaker in the kidney. Finally, TNP-LPS also provoked a transcriptional regulation of some immune genes in the spleen and the intestine, including a decreased transcription of foxp3a and foxp3b in intestine that suggests a breach in tolerogenic responses in response to TI stimulation. These results contribute to a better understanding of how intestinal immunity is regulated in teleost and will aid in the future design of effective oral strategies for aquaculture., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The RNA-binding protein polypyrimidine tract-binding protein-1 (Ptbp1) binds to the pyrimidine-rich sequence of target RNA and controls gene expression via post-transcriptional regulation such as alternative splicing. Although Ptbp1 is highly expressed in B lymphocytes, its role to date is largely unknown. To clarify the role of Ptbp1 in B-cell development and function, we generated B-cell-specific Ptbp1-deficient (P1BKO) mice. B-cell development in the bone marrow, spleen and peritoneal cavity of the P1BKO mice was nearly normal. However, the P1BKO mice had significantly lower levels of natural antibodies in serum compared with those of the control mice. To investigate the effect of Ptbp1 deficiency on the immune response in vivo, we immunized the P1BKO mice with T-cell-independent type-2 (TI-2) antigen NP-Ficoll and T-cell-dependent (TD) antigen NP-CGG. We found that B-cell-specific Ptbp1 deficiency causes an immunodeficiency phenotype due to defective production of antibody against both TI-2 and TD antigen. This immunodeficiency was accompanied by impaired B-cell receptor (BCR)-mediated B-cell activation and plasmablast generation. These findings demonstrate that Ptbp1 is essential for the humoral immune response., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of The Japanese Society for Immunology.)

In order to elucidate the influence of T lymphocytes subpopulations on B lymphocytes immune response, in this paper, CD4-1 + , CD4-2 + , CD8 + T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes responses to thymus-independent (TI) or thymus-dependent (TD) antigen plus immunosuppressant were investigated in flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). The results showed that in LPS-immunized group, the percentages of CD4-1 + , CD4-2 + , CD8β + T (PCD4-1 + T, PCD4-2 + T and PCD8β + T) lymphocytes in peripheral blood leucocytes (PBLs) had no significant variations, the percentages of IgM + B (PIgM + B) lymphocytes and LPS-specific antibodies (LA) significantly increased and peaked at 3 rd or 4 th week post-injection; CsA had no inhibition on both T/B lymphocytes and LA; RaPa only suppressed the PIgM + B lymphocytes and LA, and the inhibition maximum (Imax) were about 35% and 20%, respectively. In KLH-immunized group, the PCD4-1 + , PCD4-2 + and PCD8β + T lymphocytes significantly increased and peaked at 3 rd or 5 th day, successively the PIgM + B lymphocytes and KLH-specific antibodies (KA) significantly increased to the peak at 5 th week; the PCD4-1 + , PCD4-2 + T and PIgM + B lymphocytes and LA were inhibited significantly by both CsA and RaPa, and the Imax on them were 13%-33%, 11%-25%, 19%-34%, 22%-26%, respectively, while the PCD8β + T lymphocytes showed no significant suppression. The results indicated that the suppression of PIgM + B lymphocytes in KLH + CsA group was not directly derived from CsA, but due to the suppression of T lymphocytes, especially CD4 + T lymphocytes subpopulations. The results showed for the first time that, similar to higher vertebrates, T lymphocytes didn't respond to TI antigen, moreover, T lymphocyte subpopulations had a regulation on the immune response of B lymphocyte for TD antigen in flounder., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Antibodies, also termed as immunoglobulins (Ig), secreted by differentiated B lymphocytes, plasmablasts/plasma cells, in humoral immunity provide a formidable defense against invading pathogens via diverse mechanisms. One major goal of vaccination is to induce protective antigen-specific antibodies to prevent life-threatening infections. Both thymus-dependent (TD) and thymus-independent (TI) antigens can elicit robust antigen-specific IgM responses and can also induce the production of isotype-switched antibodies (IgG, IgA and IgE) as well as the generation of memory B cells with the help provided by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Here, we describe a protocol to characterize TD and TI Ig isotype responses in mice using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In this protocol, TD and TI Ig responses are elicited in mice by intraperitoneal (i.p.) immunization with hapten-conjugated model antigens TNP-KLH (in alum) and TNP-polysaccharide (in PBS), respectively. To induce TD memory response, a booster immunization of TNP-KLH in alum is given at 3 weeks after the first immunization with the same antigen/adjuvant. Mouse sera are harvested at different time points before and after immunization. Total serum Ig levels and TNP-specific antibodies are subsequently quantified using Ig isotype-specific Sandwich and indirect ELISA, respectively. In order to correctly quantify the serum concentration of each Ig isotype, the samples need to be appropriately diluted to fit within the linear range of the standard curves. Using this protocol, we have consistently obtained reliable results with high specificity and sensitivity. When used in combination with other complementary methods such as flow cytometry, in vitro culture of splenic B cells and immunohistochemical staining (IHC), this protocol will allow researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of antibody responses in a given experimental setting.

CD22 (Siglec-2) is a critical regulator of B cell activation and survival. CD22 -/- mice generate significantly impaired Ab responses to T cell-independent type 2 (TI-2) Ags, including haptenated Ficoll and pneumococcal polysaccharides, Ags that elicit poor T cell help and activate BCR signaling via multivalent epitope crosslinking. This has been proposed to be due to impaired marginal zone (MZ) B cell development/maintenance in CD22 -/- mice. However, mice expressing a mutant form of CD22 unable to bind sialic acid ligands generated normal TI-2 Ab responses, despite significantly reduced MZ B cells. Moreover, mice treated with CD22 ligand-binding blocking mAbs, which deplete MZ B cells, had little effect on TI-2 Ab responses. We therefore investigated the effects of CD22 deficiency on B-1b cells, an innate-like B cell population that plays a key role in TI-2 Ab responses. B-1b cells from CD22 -/- mice had impaired BCR-induced proliferation and significantly increased intracellular Ca 2+ concentration responses following BCR crosslinking. Ag-specific B-1b cell expansion and plasmablast differentiation following TI-2 Ag immunization was significantly impaired in CD22 -/- mice, consistent with reduced TI-2 Ab responses. We generated CD22 -/- mice with reduced CD19 levels (CD22 -/- CD19 +/- ) to test the hypothesis that augmented B-1b cell BCR signaling in CD22 -/- mice contributes to impaired TI-2 Ab responses. BCR-induced proliferation and intracellular Ca 2+ concentration responses were normalized in CD22 -/- CD19 +/- B-1b cells. Consistent with this, TI-2 Ag-specific B-1b cell expansion, plasmablast differentiation, survival, and Ab responses were rescued in CD22 -/- CD19 +/- mice. Thus, CD22 plays a critical role in regulating TI-2 Ab responses through regulating B-1b cell signaling thresholds., (Copyright © 2018 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.)

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is an attractive tool for the development of nanoparticle-based cancer therapy since it endows nanoparticles with extended-circulation properties. Nevertheless, recent reports have revealed that intravenous injection of either PEGylated liposomes (SLs) or PEGylated lipoplex (PLpx) could elicit an anti-PEG immunoglobulin (IgM) response in a T cell-independent (TI) manner that would substantially compromise the in vivo fate of PEGylated products upon repeated administration. In the same context, viral or bacterial infections trigger the production of polyreactive IgM that binds both self and foreign antigens. The polyreactivity of IgM elicited by SLs or PLpx, to bacteria and other polymers, however, is yet to be elucidated. In this study, the polyreactivity of IgM elicited by SLs or PLpx was challenged against different bacteria (TI antigens) and against synthetic polymer composed of repetitive structures (PVP-360 or FITC-dextran). Results demonstrated that anti-PEG IgM elicited by either SLs or PLpx showed no reactivity to various bacteria examined, while the IgM showed remarkable reactivity to both PVP-360 and FITC-dextran. In addition, interestingly, anti-PEG IgM elicited by either SLs or PLpx showed no antinuclear antibody-like immune reactivity, and, therefore, treatment with either SLs or PLpx was not expected to exacerbate autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. Collectively, our findings could provide information supporting the safety of PEGylated nanoparticle-based pharmaceutics, particularly in patients with autoimmune diseases., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Marginal zone (MZ) B cells reside in the splenic MZ and play important roles in T cell-independent humoral immune responses against blood-borne pathogens. IκBNS-deficient bumble mice exhibit a severe reduction in the MZ B compartment but regain an MZ B population with age and, thus, represent a valuable model to examine the biology of MZ B cells. In this article, we characterized the MZ B cell defect in further detail and investigated the nature of the B cells that appear in the MZ of aged bumble mice. Flow cytometry analysis of the splenic transitional B cell subsets demonstrated that MZ B cell development was blocked at the transitional-1 to transitional-2-MZ precursor stage in the absence of functional IκBNS. Immunohistochemical analysis of spleen sections from wild-type and bumble mice revealed no alteration in the cellular MZ microenvironment, and analysis of bone marrow chimeras indicated that the MZ B cell development defect in bumble mice was B cell intrinsic. Further, we demonstrate that the B cells that repopulate the MZ in aged bumble mice were distinct from age-matched wild-type MZ B cells. Specifically, the expression of surface markers characteristic for MZ B cells was altered and the L chain Igλ + repertoire was reduced in bumble mice. Finally, plasma cell differentiation of sorted LPS-stimulated MZ B cells was impaired, and aged bumble mice were unable to respond to NP-Ficoll immunization. These results demonstrate that IκBNS is required for an intact MZ B cell compartment in C57BL/6 mice., (Copyright © 2018 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.)

Marginal zone (MZ) B cells are positioned within the spleen to capture blood-borne antigen and immune complexes and deliver them to follicular dendritic cells in the B-cell follicles. We show that within the spleens of aged mice antigen capture by MZ B cells, and their ability to shuttle between the follicle and MZ, were impaired. The ability of aged MZ B cells to migrate towards the MZ chemoattractant sphingosine-1-phosphate was increased, suggesting that aged MZ B cells had a greater propensity to be retained within the MZ. An extrinsic impairment in aged B-cell migration towards the MZ was demonstrated using bone marrow chimeras. The follicular shuttling of MZ B cells derived from either young or aged bone marrow was similarly reduced in aged recipient spleens, showing that ageing effects on splenic stromal cells were responsible for the impaired follicular shuttling of MZ B cells. MZ B cells rapidly mount T-cell-independent (TI) antibody-responses to microbial polysaccharide antigen. In aged mice the ability to produce immunoglobulins in response to the TI type 1 antigen TNP-LPS was impaired. These ageing-related changes to the MZ and MZ B cells have implications for the clearance of blood-borne pathogens. Indeed elderly people have increased susceptibility to Streptococcus pneumoniae, a TI antigen, and decreased responses to vaccination. A thorough analysis of the mechanisms that underpin the ageing-related decline in the status of the MZ and MZ B cells will help the design of novel treatments to improve immunity in the elderly., (© 2017 The Authors. Immunology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

There are over 350 million chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in the world, of whom about a third eventually develop severe HBV-related complications. HBV contributes to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma development. Remarkable progress has been made in selective inhibition of HBV replication by nucleoside analogs. However, how to generate protective antibody of HBsAb in HBV-infected patients after HBV-DNA becomes negative still remains a challenge for scientists. In this study, we show that OmpC-HBsAg 'a' epitope chimeric protein vaccine can break HBV tolerance and induce protective immunity in HBV transgenic mice based on mimicking T cell-independent antigen to bypass T cells from the adaptive immune system. The antibodies induced by the vaccine have the ability to prevent HBV virion infection of human hepatocytes.

Humoral responses to nonproteinaceous Ags (i.e., T cell independent [TI]) are a key component of the early response to bacterial and viral infection and a critical driver of systemic autoimmunity. However, mechanisms that regulate TI humoral immunity are poorly defined. In this study, we report that B cell-intrinsic induction of the tryptophan-catabolizing enzyme IDO1 is a key mechanism limiting TI Ab responses. When Ido1(-/-) mice were immunized with TI Ags, there was a significant increase in Ab titers and formation of extrafollicular Ab-secreting cells compared with controls. This effect was specific to TI Ags, as Ido1 disruption did not affect Ig production after immunization with protein Ags. The effect of IDO1 abrogation was confined to the B cell compartment, as adoptive transfer of Ido1(-/-) B cells to B cell-deficient mice was sufficient to replicate increased TI responses observed in Ido1(-/-) mice. Moreover, in vitro activation with TLR ligands or BCR crosslinking rapidly induced Ido1 expression and activity in purified B cells, and Ido1(-/-) B cells displayed enhanced proliferation and cell survival associated with increased Ig and cytokine production compared with wild-type B cells. Thus, our results demonstrate a novel, B cell-intrinsic, role for IDO1 as a regulator of humoral immunity that has implications for both vaccine design and prevention of autoimmunity., (Copyright © 2015 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.)

CD83 is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is rapidly up-regulated on activated B cells. Although CD83 itself is incapable to transduce intracellular signaling, it acts as a negative regulator of B cell function. We have recently described that a single application of anti-CD83 antibody results in dramatically enhanced production of antigen-specific IgG1 but not other isotypes upon immunization of mice with the TI-2 model antigen (Ag) NIP-Ficoll. This effect was mediated by the binding of anti-CD83 to CD83 on the surface of B cells themselves. In the current study we show that administration of anti-CD83 enhances IgG1-production independent of IL-4. Application of anti-CD83 does not alter the proliferation and general expansion of NIP-specific B cells. In the presence of anti-CD83, immunized mice develop normal frequencies of plasmablasts in response to NIP-Ficoll of which an increased number produces IgG1. These cells localize in extrafollicular foci in the spleen of immunized mice and originate from the marginal zone B cell pool. Taken together, our results indicate that CD83 engagement in vivo does not generally enhance B cell activation but selectively promotes IgG1 class switch in marginal zone B cells in response to TI-2 Ag., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Multivalent molecules with repetitive structures including bacterial capsular polysaccharides and viral capsids elicit antibody responses through B cell receptor (BCR) crosslinking in the absence of T cell help. We report that immunization with these T cell-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigens causes up-regulation of endogenous retrovirus (ERV) RNAs in antigen-specific mouse B cells. These RNAs are detected via a mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS)-dependent RNA sensing pathway or reverse-transcribed and detected via the cGAS-cGAMP-STING pathway, triggering a second, sustained wave of signaling that promotes specific immunoglobulin M production. Deficiency of both MAVS and cGAS, or treatment of MAVS-deficient mice with reverse transcriptase inhibitors, dramatically inhibits TI-2 antibody responses. These findings suggest that ERV and two innate sensing pathways that detect them are integral components of the TI-2 B cell signaling apparatus., (Copyright © 2014, American Association for the Advancement of Science.)

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) regulate stromal cells, epithelial cells and cells of the immune system, but their effect on B cells remains unclear. Here we identified RORγt(+) ILCs near the marginal zone (MZ), a splenic compartment that contains innate-like B cells highly responsive to circulating T cell-independent (TI) antigens. Splenic ILCs established bidirectional crosstalk with MAdCAM-1(+) marginal reticular cells by providing tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) and lymphotoxin, and they stimulated MZ B cells via B cell-activation factor (BAFF), the ligand of the costimulatory receptor CD40 (CD40L) and the Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (DLL1). Splenic ILCs further helped MZ B cells and their plasma-cell progeny by coopting neutrophils through release of the cytokine GM-CSF. Consequently, depletion of ILCs impaired both pre- and post-immune TI antibody responses. Thus, ILCs integrate stromal and myeloid signals to orchestrate innate-like antibody production at the interface between the immune system and circulatory system.

Formation of the splenic marginal zone (MZ) depends on the alternative NF-κB signaling pathway. Recently, we reported that unrestricted activation of this pathway in NF-κB2/p100-deficient (p100(-/-) ) knock-in mice alters the phenotype of MZ stroma and B cells. Here, we show that lack of the p100 inhibitor resulted in an expansion of both MZ B and peritoneal B-1 cells. However, these cells failed to generate proliferating blasts in response to T-cell-independent type 2 (TI-2) Ags, correlating with dampened IgM and absent IgG3 responses. This phenotype was in part due to increased activity of the NF-κB subunit RelB. Moreover, p100(-/-) →B6 BM chimeras were more susceptible to infection by encapsulated Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria, pathogens that induce TI-2 responses. In contrast to the TI-2 defect, p100 deficiency did not impair immune responses to the TI-1 Ag LPS and p100(-/-) MZ B cells showed normal Ag transportation into B-cell follicles. Furthermore, p100(-/-) MZ B and B-1 cells failed to respond to TI-2 Ags in the presence of WT accessory cells. Thus, NF-κB2/p100 deficiency caused a predominant B-cell-intrinsic TI-2 defect that could largely be attributed to impaired proliferation of plasmablasts. Importantly, p100 was also necessary for efficient defense against clinically relevant TI-2 pathogens., (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

High rates of coinfection occur in malaria endemic regions, leading to more severe disease outcomes. Understanding how coinfecting pathogens influence the immune system is important in the development of treatment strategies that reduce morbidity and mortality. Using the Plasmodium chabaudi mouse model of malaria and immunization with model Ags that are either T-dependent (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl [NP]-OVA) or T-independent (NP-Ficoll), we analyzed the effects of acute malaria on the development of humoral immunity to secondary Ags. Total Ig and IgG1 NP-specific Ab responses to NP-OVA were significantly decreased in the P. chabaudi-infected group compared with the uninfected group, whereas NP-specific IgG2c Ab was significantly increased in the P. chabaudi-infected group. In contrast, following injection with T-independent NP-Ficoll, the P. chabaudi-infected group had significantly increased NP-specific total Ig, IgM, and IgG2c Ab titers compared with controls. Treatment with anti-IFN-γ led to an abrogation of the NP-specific IgG2c Ab induced by P. chabaudi infection but did not affect other NP-specific Ab isotypes or titers. IFN-γ depletion also increased the percentage of plasma cells in both P. chabaudi-infected and uninfected groups but decreased the percentage of B cells with a germinal center (GC) phenotype. Using immunofluorescent microscopy, we were able to detect NP(+) GCs in the spleens of noninfected mice, but there were no detectible NP(+) GCs in mice infected with P. chabaudi. These data suggest that during P. chabaudi infection, there is a shift toward an extrafollicular Ab response that could be responsible for decreased Ab responses to secondary T-dependent Ags.

The accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon has been reported to enhance the clearance of PEGylated liposomes from the blood circulation when the liposomes are injected into the same animal repeatedly. We have shown that anti-PEG IgM production from splenic B cells is crucial in the ABC phenomenon. In this study, we describe the crucial role of marginal zone (MZ) B cells in the anti-PEG IgM production and recognition of PEGylated liposomes in the induction phase of ABC phenomenon. Suppression of the anti-PEG IgM production was correlated with the disappearance of IgM(high) cells in the MZ, particularly MZ-B cells, following cyclophosphamide (CPA)-treatment, confirming that splenic MZ-B cells are responsible for anti-PEG IgM production. The MZ-B cells stimulated by a first dose of PEGylated liposomes internalized the second dose of PEGylated liposomes in a PEG modification-dependent manner and transported the liposomes into the follicle (FO) region. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing that PEGylated liposome is recognized by MZ-B cells and transported to the FO region like blood-borne antigens or immune complexes. It is likely that PEGylated liposomes are recognized as a TI-2 antigen by the first line of defense against life-threatening infections by blood-borne organisms. Our study may have implications for immunogenicity of synthesized polymer-grafted therapeutics including nanocarriers, nucleic acids and proteins., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

The disposition of teleost memory and plasma cells (PCs) has essentially been un-explored. As the organization of the teleost immune system differs significantly from that of mammals (i.e. no bone marrow or lymph nodes, hematopoietic anterior kidney), this disposition could be essential in understanding how comparable functions are achieved. To address this question, the primary and secondary antibody-secreting cell, B memory cell, and antibody responses to T-independent and T-dependent antigens were analyzed in trout. Although the TI and TD antibody responses did not differ substantively from one another, the secondary responses to both were significantly prolonged compared with the primary responses. Logarithmic increases in titer and affinity were achieved for both antigens during the primary, with only modest increases during the secondary response. Antibody-secreting cells, both PCs and plasmablasts, quantitatively paralleled antibody production, with antibody-secreting cells skewing to the hematopoietic anterior kidney for both antigens. However, the enhanced antigen-inducible response of immune fish (indicative of the memory pool) skewed to the peripheral blood and spleen. This pattern of memory versus PC disposition parallels that observed in mammals even though the organization of the respective immune systems differs considerably., (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Polyreactivity is well known as a property of natural IgM produced by B-1 cells. We demonstrate that polyreactive IgM is also generated during infection of mice with Ehrlichia muris, a tick-borne intracellular bacterial pathogen. The polyreactive IgM bound self and foreign Ags, including single-stranded and double-stranded DNA, insulin, thyroglobulin, LPS, influenza virus, and Borrelia burgdorferi. Production of polyreactive IgM during infection was Ag driven, not due to polyclonal B cell activation, as the majority of polyreactive IgM recognized ehrlichial Ag(s), including an immunodominant outer membrane protein. Monoclonal polyreactive IgM derived from T cell-independent spleen plasmablasts, which was germline-encoded, also bound cytoplasmic and nuclear Ags in HEp-2 cells. Polyreactive IgM protected immunocompromised mice against lethal bacterial challenge infection. Serum from human ehrlichiosis patients also contained polyreactive and self-reactive IgM. We propose that polyreactivity increases IgM efficacy during infection but may also exacerbate or mollify the response to foreign and self Ags.

Blk was identified two decades ago as a B-cell-specific member of the Src family of tyrosine kinases. Recent studies, however, have discovered that Blk is expressed in many cell types outside of the B lineage, including early thymic precursors, interleukin-17-producing γδ T cells and pancreatic β-cells. In light of these recent discoveries, we performed a more comprehensive analysis of Blk expression patterns in hematopoietic cells and found that Blk is differentially expressed in mature B-cell subsets, with marginal zone (MZ) B cells expressing high levels, B1 B cells expressing intermediate-to-high levels and follicular (FO) B cells expressing low levels of Blk. To determine whether these differences in Blk expression levels reflected differential requirements for Blk in MZ, B1 and FO B-cell development, we analyzed the effects of reducing and eliminating Blk expression on B-cell development. We report that both Blk haploinsufficiency and Blk deficiency impaired the generation of MZ B cells. Moreover, although there were fewer MZ B cells in Blk(+/-) and Blk(-/-) mice as compared with Blk(+/+) mice, Blk-mutant MZ B cells were hyper-responsive to B-cell receptor stimulation, both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, this study has revealed a previously unappreciated role for Blk in the development and activation of MZ B cells.

Despite being unable to mount a bona fide recall antibody (Ab) response to secondary immunization, T cell-independent antigens (TI Ag) such as pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides (PS) can generate protective humoral immunity in adults. The concept of TI B cell memory after being iconoclastic for decades has now received experimental support from several laboratories. TI B cell memory comprises two components: i) memory B lymphocytes that differ phenotypically and functionally from their T cell-dependent counterparts, ii) memory bone marrow plasma cells that play a crucial role in the immune protection conferred by TI polysaccharidic vaccines. B-1b cells constitute the major source of both TI memory lymphocytes and plasma cells. This conceptual shift should lead to rehabilitate the TI arm of the immune system for vaccination purposes., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Memory B cells generated during a T cell-dependent immune response rapidly respond to a secondary immunization by producing abundant IgG Abs that bind cognate Ag with high affinity. It is currently unclear whether this heightened recall response by memory B cells is due to augmented IgG-BCR signaling, which has only been demonstrated in the context of naive transgenic B cells. To address this question, we examined whether memory B cells can respond in vivo to Ags that stimulate only through BCR, namely T cell-independent type II (TI-II) Ags. In this study, we show that the TI-II Ag (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl) acetyl (NP)-Ficoll cannot elicit the recall response in mice first immunized with the T cell-dependent Ag NP-chicken γ-globulin. Moreover, the NP-Ficoll challenge in vivo as well as in vitro significantly inhibits a subsequent recall response to NP-chicken γ-globulin in a B cell-intrinsic manner. This NP-Ficoll-mediated tolerance is caused by the preferential elimination of IgG(+) memory B cells binding to NP with high affinity. These data indicate that BCR cross-linking with a TI-II Ag does not activate IgG(+) memory B cells, but rather tolerizes them, identifying a terminal checkpoint of memory B cell differentiation that may prevent autoimmunity.

Adults who have recovered from an episode of invasive pneumococcal disease demonstrate defective B cell activation in response to αδ-dex, a polyclonal polysaccharide mimic, compared with matched control subjects. The defect is not overcome by CD4(+) T cell assistance and may explain the relatively poor response to pneumococcal vaccination in survivors of invasive pneumococcal disease.

Dextran was used to explore a novel method of enhancing an immune response against T-cell independent type 2 (TI-2) polysaccharide antigens, because of its suitability as a model for the immunogenecity of many TI-2 polysaccharide antigens and its high affinity to SIGN-R1. Here we showed that the primary immune response of IgM, IgG3, and IgG2b was enhanced by dextran in SIGN-R1 knock-out (KO) mice, further evoking the induction of a secondary immune response to IgG2b in parallel. On the other hand, an immune response of IgG1 and IgG2b against T-cell dependent (TD) antigen was strongly enhanced by the administration of ovalbumin (OVA) in SIGN-R1 KO mice. These results indicate that SIGN-R1 is critical in the regulation of immune responses. Therefore, our study suggests that inhibition of TI-2 polysaccharide antigen uptake in SIGN-R1(+) macrophages contributes to the development of novel vaccination strategies against TI-2 polysaccharide antigens.

Capsular polysaccharides of Streptococcus pneumoniae are representative T-cell-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigens, frequently causing serious infections in children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients. However, the detailed mechanism of this immune escape by CPSs is poorly understood. To pursue this question, polysaccharide dextran, ligand of SIGN-R1 as well as an appropriate model of the immunogenicity of many TI-2 polysaccharide antigens was used. SIGN-R1 bound to binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP), a well-characterized endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone, primarily in non-ER compartments. Interestingly, SIGN-R1(+) macrophages in the MZ showed high expression of BiP, implying an important role of SIGN-R1 binding to BiP in vivo. To our surprise, dextran is rapidly transported into the ER and subsequently regurgitated out of cells in vitro or in vivo. BiP down-regulation in SIGN-R1 transfectant reduced the regurgitation of dextran, causing the accumulation of dextran in the ER. Therefore, these results demonstrated the first example to describe the intracellular trafficking and the regurgitation of TI-2 antigen dextran, suggesting the novel pathway of TI-2 antigen presentation to immune cells., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Follicular (FO) and marginal zone (MZ) B cells are maintained in distinct locations within the spleen, but the genetic basis for this separation is still enigmatic. We now report that B cell sequestration requires lineage-specific regulation of migratory receptors by the transcription factor Klf2. Moreover, using gene-targeted mice we show that altered splenic B cell migration confers a significant in vivo gain-of-function phenotype to FO B cells, including the ability to quickly respond to MZ-associated antigens and pathogens in a T cell-dependent manner. This work demonstrates that in wild-type animals, naive FO B cells are actively removed from the MZ, thus restricting their capacity to respond to blood-borne pathogens., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Young children are impaired in their response to T cell-independent (TI) Ags, such as pneumococcal polysaccharide (PPS). B lymphopoeisis early in life is IL-7 independent, whereas in adults it is IL-7 dependent. Therefore, we hypothesized that IL-7-driven B lymphopoiesis plays a critical role in promoting Ab responses to TI Ags. Young but not adult mice are impaired in responses to PPS vaccination and to 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl-acetyl-Ficoll, a widely studied model TI Ag, and B1b cells generate Ab responses to these Ags. In this paper, we show that, despite having B1b, B1a, and MZ B cells-all of which are involved in TI responses-young wild-type or adult mice deficient either in IL-7 or in IL-7Ralpha are severely impaired in anti-PPS responses and do not survive Streptococcus pneumoniae challenge, indicating IL-7-dependent B cells are required for TI immunity. Consistent with this, PPS immunization induced a robust TI response in young IL-7 transgenic mice that was comparable to adult wild-type responses. Moreover, immunized young or adult IL-7 transgenic mice were completely resistant to S. pneumoniae challenge. Our data indicate that activating the IL-7 signaling pathway could restore impaired TI responses in the young.

Sh2d3c is an adaptor protein that has been implicated in T cell activation and shown to associate with different components of the integrin signaling pathway ex vivo. However, the in vivo significance of Sh2d3c expression in the regulation of the immune response and/or hematopoietic cell lineage development is not known. In this study, we show that expression of Sh2d3c is more critical for development and function of marginal zone B (MZB) cells than for T cell maturation. Mice deficient in Sh2d3c expression (Sh2d3c(-/-)) had a reduced number of MZB cells, and the residual MZB cells failed to properly capture polysaccharide Ags. Activation-induced proliferation, cytokine production, and migration of Sh2d3c(-)(/)(-) splenic B cells were also significantly reduced in vitro compared with wild-type (Sh2d3c(+/+)) cells. In contrast, T cell development and function were largely normal in Sh2d3c(-/-) mice. The thymi of Sh2d3c(-/-) mice showed no maturational abnormalities, the number of splenic T cells was only modestly reduced, and the T cells responded normally to in vitro polyclonal activation. The observed B cell deficiency in the Sh2d3c(-/-) mice led to diminished humoral immune response against thymus-independent type 2, but not thymus-dependent Ags, which highlights the primary in vivo role of Sh2d3c in regulating B cell development and function.

Repeated injection of polyethyleneglycol-modified (PEGylated) liposomes causes a rapid clearance of them from the bloodstream, this phenomenon is called accelerated blood clearance (ABC). In the present study, we focused on the immune system responsible for the ABC phenomenon. PEGylated liposomes were preadministered to BALB/c mice and [(3)H]-labeled ones were then administered to them 3 days after the preadministration. Consistent with our previous results, the preadministration with PEGylated liposomes triggered the rapid clearance of [(3)H]-labeled PEGylated liposomes from the bloodstream, but that with PEGylated liposomes encapsulating doxorubicin (Dox) did not. In addition, we found that the ABC phenomenon was observed when a mixture of free Dox and PEGylated liposomes was preadministered. These data indicate that immune cells responsible for the ABC phenomenon might be selectively damaged by the Dox encapsulated in PEGylated liposomes. The ABC phenomenon was also observed in BALB/c nu/nu mice, but not in BALB/c SCID mice. The amount of anti-PEG IgM antibody induced by the stimulation with the PEGylated liposomes was significantly increased in the BALB/c nu/nu mice, but not in the BALB/c SCID ones. These data indicate that a T cell-independent B cell response would play a significant role in the ABC phenomenon. Furthermore, the present study suggests that PEGylated liposomes might be recognized by B cells as a thymus-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigen. The present study provides important information for the future development of liposomal medicines., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In rats, hypophysectomy (HYPOX) or neurointermediate pituitary lobectomy (NIL) reduce humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. However, to our knowledge, the differences in the effects of anterior versus posterior pituitary hormones on the immune responses have not been studied to date. We compared in rats, the effects of sham surgery (SHAM), HYPOX, and NIL on humoral immune responses to T cell-independent (TI) type 1 antigen DNP-LPS and to TI type 2 antigen DNP-FICOLL, as well as to T cell-dependent (TD) antigens ovalbumin (OVA) and bovine serum albumin (BSA). The results showed that: (1) both HYPOX and NIL induced a similar and significant decrease in IgM responses towards TI-1 antigens, (2) NIL but not HYPOX induced a decreased IgM response to TI-2 antigens, and (3) both HYPOX and NIL induced similar and significant decrease in IgG responses to TI-2 antigens. Compared with the SHAM group, IgM responses to both TD antigens did not change in HYPOX and NIL animals, whereas the IgG responses to OVA and BSA significantly decreased in HYPOX and NIL animals. These results indicate that hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary play their own role in the regulation of humoral immune responses.

It was recently shown that bacterial thymus-independent (TI) antigens confer long-lasting immunity and generate memory B lymphocytes. However, reactivation of TI memory B cells is repressed in immunocompetent mice, thus raising the issue of the mechanism whereby TI vaccines confer immune protection. Here, we propose an explanation to this apparent paradox by showing that a Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular polysaccharide (PS) generates long-lived bone marrow (BM) plasma cells which frequency can be increased by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs). The adjuvant effect of CpG ODNs on the PS3 Ab response is directly targeted to B cells and does not involve B-1a cells. We also demonstrated that BM plasma cells generated in response to the thymus-dependent (TD) form of the PS vaccine have a higher secretion capacity than those produced after immunization with the CpG-adjuvanted PS vaccine. Finally, we show that the PS-specific BM plasma cell compartment is sufficient to confer full protection of vaccinated mice against S pneumoniae infection. Altogether, our results show that TI antigens like their TD counterparts can generate both the lymphoid and the plasma cell component of B-cell memory. They also provide a framework for the improvement and widespread usage of TI vaccines.

CD81 is a component of the CD19/CD21 co-receptor complex in B cells. However, the role of CD81 in B cell activation has not been clearly elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that Cd81(-/-) B cells stimulated via their B cell receptor fluxed higher intracellular-free calcium ion along with increased phosphorylation of spleen tyrosine kinase and phospholipase gamma 2. Additionally, Cd81(-/-) B cells responded to toll like receptor 4 stimulation with increased nuclear factor-kappa B activation, cell proliferation and antibody secretion compared with wild-type B cells. Cd81(-/-) mice also mounted a significantly higher immune response to T-independent antigens than their wild-type counterparts. Finally, analysis of Cd81(-/-) B cells that were generated by bone marrow transplantation into Rag1(-/-) mice confirmed that the hyperactive phenotype is not dependent on the CD81-deficient environment. Taken together, these results indicate that CD81 plays a negative role in B cell activation in vitro and in vivo.

IgM is an antibody class common to all vertebrates that plays a primary role in host defenses against infection. Binding of IgM with an antigen initiates the complement cascade, accelerating cellular and humoral immune responses. However, the functional role of the Fc receptor for IgM in such immune responses remains obscure. Here we show that mice deficient in Fc alpha/muR, an Fc receptor for IgM expressed on B cells and follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), have enhanced germinal center formation and affinity maturation and memory induction of IgG3(+) B cells after immunization with T-independent (TI) antigens. Moreover, Fc alpha/muR-deficient mice show prolonged antigen retention by marginal zone B (MZB) cells and FDCs. In vitro studies demonstrate that interaction of the IgM immune complex with Fc alpha/muR partly suppress TI antigen retention by MZB cells. We further show that downregulation of complement receptor (CR)1 and CR2 or complement deprivation by in vivo injection with anti-CR1/2 antibody or cobra venom factor attenuates antigen retention by MZB cells and germinal center formation after immunization with TI antigens in Fc alpha/muR(-/-) mice. Taken together, these results suggest that Fc alpha/muR negatively regulates TI antigen retention by MZB cells and FDCs, leading to suppression of humoral immune responses against T-independent antigens.

B cells generated in the bone marrow of adult mice enter the periphery as transitional B cells and subsequently differentiate into one of two phenotypically and functionally distinct subsets, marginal zone (MZ) or follicular (Fo) B cells. Recent reports indicate, however, that in response to environmental cues, such as lymphopenia, mature Fo B cells can change to display phenotypic markers characteristic of MZ B cells. Previously, we found that splenic B cells transferred to SCID mice responded to polyoma virus (PyV) infection with T cell-independent (TI) IgM and IgG secretion, reducing the viral load and protecting mice from the lethal effect of the infection. The contribution of MZ and Fo B cell subsets to this antiviral TI-2 response, however, has not been addressed. In this study, we show that both sort-purified MZ and Fo B cells generate protective TI Ab responses to PyV infection when transferred into SCID mice. Moreover, the transferred Fo B cells in the spleens of the PyV-infected SCID mice change phenotype, with many of them displaying MZ B cell characteristics. These findings demonstrate the plasticity of the B cell subsets in virus-infected hosts and show for the first time that B cells derived exclusively from Fo B cells can effectively function in antiviral TI-2 responses.

Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) periodically arrange membrane-bound immune complexes (ICs) of T-dependent Ags 200-500A apart, and in addition to Ag, they provide B cells with costimulatory signals. This prompted the hypothesis that Ag in FDC-ICs can simultaneously cross-link multiple BCRs and induce T cell-independent (TI) B cell activation. TI responses are characterized by rapid IgM production. OVA-IC-bearing FDCs induced OVA-specific IgM in anti-Thy-1-pretreated nude mice and by purified murine and human B cells in vitro within just 48 h. Moreover, nude mice immunized with OVA-ICs exhibited well-developed GL-7(+) germinal centers with IC-retaining FDC-reticula and Blimp-1(+) plasmablasts within 48 h. In contrast, FDCs with unbound-OVA, which would have free access to BCRs, induced no germinal centers, plasmablasts, or IgM. Engagement of BCRs with rat-anti-mouse IgD (clone 11-26) does not activate B cells even when cross-linked. However, B cells were activated when anti-IgD-ICs, formed with Fc-specific rabbit anti-rat IgG, were loaded on FDCs. B cell activation was indicated by high phosphotyrosine levels in caps and patches, expression of GL-7 and Blimp-1, and B cell proliferation within 48 h after stimulation with IC-bearing FDCs. Moreover, anti-IgD-IC-loaded FDCs induced strong polyclonal IgM responses within 48 h. Blockade of FDC-FcgammaRIIB inhibited the ability of FDC-ICs to induce T-independent IgM responses. Similarly, neutralizing FDC-C4BP or -BAFF, to minimize these FDC-costimulatory signals, also inhibited this FDC-dependent IgM response. This is the first report of FDC-dependent but TI responses to T cell-dependent Ags.

CD22 [Siglec-2 (sialic acid-binding, immunoglobulin-like lectin-2)], a negative regulator of B-cell signalling, binds to alpha2,6- sialic acid-linked glycoconjugates, including a sialyl-Tn antigen that is one of the typical tumour-associated carbohydrate antigens expressed on various mucins. Many epithelial tumours secrete mucins into tissues and/or the bloodstream. Mouse mammary adenocarcinoma cells, TA3-Ha, produce a mucin named epiglycanin, but a subline of them, TA3-St, does not. Epiglycanin binds to CD22 and inhibits B-cell signalling in vitro. The in vivo effect of mucins in the tumour-bearing state was investigated using these cell lines. It should be noted that splenic MZ (marginal zone) B-cells were dramatically reduced in the mice bearing TA3-Ha cells but not in those bearing TA3-St cells, this being consistent with the finding that the thymus-independent response was reduced in these mice. When the mucins were administered to normal mice, a portion of them was detected in the splenic MZ associated with the MZ B-cells. Furthermore, administration of mucins to normal mice clearly reduced the splenic MZ B-cells, similar to tumour-bearing mice. These results indicate that mucins in the bloodstream interacted with CD22, which led to impairment of the splenic MZ B-cells in the tumour-bearing state.

B6.Sle1b mice, which contain the Sle1b gene interval derived from lupus prone NZM2410 mice on a C57BL/6 background, present with gender-biased, highly penetrant anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) production. To obtain some insight into the possible induction mechanism of autoantibodies in these mice we compared antigen-specific T dependent (TD) and T independent (TI-II) responses between B6.Sle1b and B6 mice before the development of high ANA titers. Our results show that B6.Sle1b mice mount enhanced responses to a TI-II antigen. Additionally, the memory T cell response generated by a TD antigen also increased. This enhancement correlates with the greater ability of B cells from B6.Sle1b mice to present antigen to T cells. The SLAM Associated Protein (SAP) is critical for signaling of many of the molecules encoded by the SLAM/CD2 gene cluster, candidates for mediating the Sle1b phenotype; therefore, we also investigated the effect of sap deletion in these strains on the TD and TI-II responses as well as on ANA production. The results of these studies of responses to non-self-antigens provide further insight into the mechanism by which responses to self-antigens might be initiated in the context of specific genetic alterations.

Although T-independent immunity is known to be generated against bacterial capsular and cell wall polysaccharides expressed by a number of bacterial pathogens, it has not been studied in depth during intracellular bacterial infections. Our previous study demonstrated that Ehrlichia muris, an obligate intracellular tick-borne pathogen, generates protective classical TI responses in CD4 T cell-deficient C57BL/6 mice. We found that E. muris T-independent immunity is accompanied by the expansion of a very large extrafollicular spleen population of CD11c(low)-expressing plasmablasts that exhibit characteristics of both B-1 and marginal zone B cells. The plasmablasts comprised up to 15% of the total spleen lymphocytes and approximately 70% of total spleen IgM(high)IgD(low) cells during peak infection in both wild-type and MHC class II-deficient mice. The CD11c(low) cells exhibited low surface expression of B220, CD19, and CD1d, high expression of CD11b, CD43, but did not express CD5. Approximately 50% of the CD11c(low) cells also expressed CD138. In addition to CD11b and CD11c, the plasmablasts expressed the beta(1) (CD29) and alpha4 (CD49d) integrins, as well as the chemokine receptor CXCR4, molecules which may play roles in localizing the B cells extrafollicular region of the spleen. During peak infection, the CD11c(low) cells accounted for the majority of the IgM-producing splenic B cells and nearly all of the E. muris outer membrane protein-specific IgM-secreting cells. Thus, during this intracellular bacterial infection, CD11c expression identifies a population of Ag-specific spleen plasmablasts responsible for T-independent Ab production.

Thymus-independent type 2 (TI-2) antigens occasionally induce long-lasting IgM memory, but do not prime for typical secondary IgG responses. However, contrary to current understanding, we detected several TI-2-induced long-term memory effects in subsequent thymus-dependent (TD) responses to the hapten 2-phenyloxazolone coupled to a protein carrier. The early primary TD response, even 3 months after TI-2 immunization, included non-mutated IgM as well as IgG antibodies exhibiting higher affinities than the Ox1 idiotype which dominates and has highest affinity in sole TD responses. The secondary exclusive IgG response 8 weeks later contained major hitherto non-observed clones. Somatic hypermutation on the normally dominant V(H)Ox1 gene was largely silenced while the associated VkappaOx1 exhibited the classical affinity-enhancing mutations, thus suggesting a separate regulation of this process for V(H) and V(L) genes. Mutations accumulated in genes which normally are rarely or non-expressed or non-mutating. First evidence is presented that receptor revision by V(H) replacement may occur during immune maturation in genetically non-engineered wildtype mice. We conclude that the TI-2 antigen-induced altered selection of TD Ag-inducible clones and its severe gene-specific influence on further somatic mutations and affinity maturation represents a network memory, which we hypothesize to be mediated by anti-idiotypic regulatory T cells.

We have analysed separately the role of B-cell receptor (BCR) stimulation and the soluble second signal in the T-cell-independent type 2 (TI-2) B-cell response. We were able to show that human B cells and macrophages (Mphi) could function together in TI-type microbial response. Interestingly, BCR cross-linking of peripheral blood (PB) B cells enhanced IgG production induced by Mphi-derived growth factors whereas interleukin (IL)-12 + IL-18 had milder effect on IgG production. We demonstrated that B-cell-derived soluble mediators primed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated Mphi for tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and IL-6 production significantly better than IFN-gamma, confirming the role of B cells in the activation of Mphi. We could show that human PB B cells were active cytokine producers and could be induced to produce interferon (IFN)-gamma mRNA in the presence of known Mphi cytokines, like IL-12 and IL-18. BCR stimulation also stabilized and enhanced the IFN-gamma mRNA production induced by IL-12 and IL-18. In addition, our novel finding was that a known Mphi cytokine, IL-10, induced the expression of IFN-gamma mRNA from human B-cell line (HF28R0) cells. In summary, we propose a model for the active role of B cells in the induction of the inflammatory response during TI antigen challenge in close collaboration with Mphi.

B cells follow two functionally distinct pathways of development: a classical germinal center (GC) T-dependent pathway in which diversification and maturation generate a slow, but virtually unlimited high-affinity response to cognate antigens; and a marginal zone (MZ) T-independent pathway providing a first line of 'innate-like' defense against specific pathogens. Cells populating these two distinct locations are the normal counterparts of two clinically important pathological entities, follicular lymphoma (FL) and MZ lymphoma (MZL). FL and MZ represent paradigms of two rising concepts of lymphomagenesis, protracted preclinical and antigen-driven lymphoproliferation, respectively. Integrating the mechanisms and functions of MZ and GC B cells and the distinctive features of their pathological counterparts should provide essential clues to the understanding of their malignant development, and should offer new insights into the design of effective treatments for B-cell lymphomas.

Encapsulated bacteria are responsible for the majority of mortality among neonates and infants. The major components on the surface of these bacteria are polysaccharides which are important virulence factors. Immunity against these components protects against disease. However, most of the polysaccharides are thymus-independent (TI)-2 antigens which induce an inadequate immune response in neonates and infants. The mechanisms that are thought to play a role in the unresponsiveness of this age group to TI-2 stimuli will be discussed. The lack of immune response may be overcome by conjugating the polysaccharides to a carrier protein. This transforms bacterial polysaccharides from a TI-2 antigen into a thymus-dependent (TD) antigen, thereby inducing an immune response and immunological memory in neonates and infants. Such conjugated vaccines have been shown to be effective against the most common causes of invasive disease caused by encapsulated bacteria in neonates and children. These and several other approaches in current vaccine development will be discussed.

While most complex antigens can induce antibody responses in a mature immunological system, this is not the case when injected into ontogenetically immature systems, as are found in neonates and pediatric-age children. Thus the antibody response to polysaccharides, which would in theory provide protection against infection by all polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitides, and Haemophilus influenzae, cannot be stimulated by immunization with the polysaccharides by themselves. It was only with the introduction of conjugate vaccines that protection from these bacterial infections was provided to this susceptible age group. The introduction of these conjugate vaccines into the arsenal of vaccines serves as a remarkable example of how valuable it is to understand the mechanisms of biological processes. Many years of intense laboratory investigation demonstrated that when polysaccharides are covalently conjugated to proteins, the characteristics of the immune response are similar to that of the protein rather than the polysaccharide. These characteristics would induce an anti-polysaccharide response even in the pediatric population, which was heretofore unable to mount protective responses to the polysaccharide. With the advent of conjugate vaccines for the above three mentioned bacteria, the incidence of bacteremia, meningitis, and otitis media has almost been eliminated. This chapter discusses in some detail the mechanisms which underlie the effectiveness of conjugate vaccines and discusses some of the vaccines that have been commercialized.

Pathogenesis of infectious disease is not only determined by the virulence of the microbe but also by the immune status of the host. Vaccination is the most effective means to control infectious diseases. A hallmark of the adaptive immune system is the generation of B cell memory, which provides a long-lasting protective antibody response that is central to the concept of vaccination. Recent studies revealed a distinct function for B1b lymphocytes, a minor subset of mature B cells that closely resembles that of memory B cells in a number of aspects. In contrast to the development of conventional B cell memory, which requires the formation of germinal centers and T cells, the development of B1b cell-mediated long-lasting antibody responses occurs independent of T cell help. T cell-independent (TI) antigens are important virulence factors expressed by a number of bacterial pathogens, including those associated with biological threats. TI antigens cannot be processed and presented to T cells and therefore are known to possess restricted T cell-dependent (TD) immunogenicity. Nevertheless, specific recognition of TI antigens by B1b cells and the highly protective antibody responses mounted by them clearly indicate a crucial role for this subset of B cells. Understanding the mechanisms of long-term immunity conferred by B1b cells may lead to improved vaccine efficacy for a variety of TI antigens.

Selection of B cells subjected to hypermutation in germinal centres (GC) during T cell-dependent (TD) antibody responses yields memory cells and long-lived plasma cells that produce high affinity antibodies biased to foreign antigens rather than self-antigens. GC also form in T-independent (TI) responses to polysaccharide antigens but failed selection results in GC involution and memory cells are not generated. To date there are no markers that allow phenotypic distinction of T-dependent and TI germinal centre B cells. We compared the global gene expression of GC B cells purified from mice immunized with either TD or TI antigens and identified eighty genes that are differentially expressed in TD GC. Significantly, the largest cluster comprises genes involved in growth and guidance of neuron axons such as Plexin B2, Basp1, Nelf, Shh, Sc4mol and Sult4alpha. This is consistent with formation of long neurite (axon and dendrite)-like structures by mouse and human GC B cells, which may facilitate T:B cell interactions within GC, affinity maturation and B cell memory formation. Expression of BASP1 and PLEXIN B2 protein is very low or undetectable in resting and TI GC B cells, but markedly upregulated in GC B cells induced in the presence of T cell help. Finally we show some of the axon growth genes upregulated in TD-GC B cells including Basp1, Shh, Sult4alpha, Sc4mol are also preferentially expressed in post-GC B cell neoplasms.

Of a number of mAbs made by immunization with sort-purified marginal zone (MZ) B cells, one was shown to recognize the mouse scavenger receptor CD36. Although CD36 is expressed by most resting MZ B cells and not by follicular and B1 B cells, it is rapidly induced on follicular B cells in vitro following TLR and CD40 stimulation. In response to T-independent and T-dependent Ag challenge, we found that CD36 was expressed on IgM+ plasma cells, but down-regulated on isotype-switched plasma cells in vivo. Although development, localization, and phenotype of MZ B cells in CD36-/- mice appeared normal, there was a minor block in the transitional stages of mature B cell development. In both primary and secondary Ab responses to heat-killed Streptococcus pneumoniae (R36A strain), both phosphoryl choline (PC)-specific IgM and IgG levels in CD36-/- mice were slightly reduced compared with wild-type mice. In addition, mice deficient in both TLR2 and CD36 produced significantly reduced levels of anti-PC IgG titers than those of single gene-deficient mice, suggesting that they may cooperate in an anti-PC Ab response. Collectively, these results show that CD36 does not affect the development of B cells, but modulates both primary and secondary anti-PC Ab responses during S. pneumoniae infection similarly to TLR2.

Humoral responses against thymus-dependent (TD) antigens are characterized by Ig class switch, somatic hypermutations (SHM) and generation of memory. These processes are thought to occur in the specialized environment of the germinal center (GC). Some thymus-independent (TI) antigens, such as native dextran B512 (Dx) can also induce formation of GCs, but the responses do not undergo substantial affinity maturation or induction of memory. Immunization with TI Dx affects later TD responses against the same epitope, reducing Dx specific IgG1. We have studied if the different outcome of the TI- and TD-induced GC reaction is due to differences in plasma cell differentiation. The transcriptional repressor B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein, Blimp-1, was used as a marker for differentiation of plasma cells. We show that TI GCs contain Blimp-1 in early and mature GCs, in contrast to TD-induced GCs which strongly express Blimp-1 only in established GCs. Furthermore, the intensity of the Blimp-1 staining is stronger in TI GCs. In addition, we demonstrate that in TD responses after TI priming the pattern of Blimp-1 expression is a mixture of both TI and TD responses. This is novel evidence since these TD humoral responses against Dx display a TI isotype pattern.