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International audience; Highlights: • We investigated multifunctionality and ecosystem services in agroecosystems. • 18 research questions, obstacles and solutions were identified. • Future research must integrate knowledge from different sectors and communities. • Biodiversity is a key factor to explore and incorporate into modelling approaches. • Promoting dialogue, standardization and data-sharing would enhance progress.Abstract:Agroecosystems are facing new challenges in the context of a growing and increasingly interconnected human population, and a paradigm shift is needed to successfully address the many complex questions that these challenges will generate. The transition to providing multiple services within an agroecosystem is a starting point for heightened multifunctionality, however, there is still hesitation among stakeholders about moving towards multi-service systems, largely because of the lack of knowledge linking productivity and multifunctionality. We reason that much of this reticence could be overcome through a better understanding of stakeholder requirements and innovative transdisciplinary research extended in the dimensions of time and space. We assembled experts in France to identify priority research questions for co-constructing projects with stakeholders. We identified 18 key questions, as well as the obstacles that hinder their resolution and propose potential solutions for tackling these obstacles. We illustrate that research into agroecosystem multifunctionality and service production must be a hugely collaborative effort and needs to integrate knowledge from different sectors and communities. Promoting dialogue, standardization and data-sharing would enhance transdisciplinary progress. Biodiversity is highlighted as a key factor to explore and incorporate into modelling approaches, but major advances must be made in the understanding of dynamic changes in the biodiversity-function-service nexus across landscapes. Resolving these research questions will allow us to translate knowledge into decision objectives, identify adaptation and tipping points in agroecosystems and develop social-ecological economic pathways that are adaptive over time.

Weed species are ecological models that recently received considerable attention due to their particular strategies linked to their ruderal-competitive traits. They are known to have the potential to provide additional floral resources for insects in flower-poor agroecosystems. However, their floral traits are much more scarcely studied than those of plants found in other habitats, such as grasslands. The aim of this study was to describe the floral phenotype of weeds and to determine to what extent their floral traits match their ecological strategies as described on the basis of leaf traits. We therefore cultivated 19 forb weeds from perennial agroecosystems, previously identified in Mediterranean fields, in a greenhouse for seven months and collected data on 12 floral and 5 leaf traits. We tested whether these traits covaried and whether they exhibited an ecological strategy at the phenotype scale. We found that in matters of flower production, weed species face a trade-off: either numerous small, low-stature flowers with small quantities of pollen and nectar, or few, large, higher-held flowers with more pollen and nectar. The floral traits were found to reflect Grime’s CSR strategies: the weed species producing fewer but costlier flowers belonged to C-strategy species, whereas those producing more but less costly flowers belonged to species dominated by an R strategy These findings indicate that the potential of weeds as floral resources for insects is related to their ecological strategies, which are known to be affected by agricultural practices that filter species composition. This implies that, as for the provision of other ecosystem services, weed communities can be managed so as to select species with interesting floral traits for pollinators.

In arable agroecosystems, arthropod communities often have a reduced abundance and diversity, which represents a challenge for sampling techniques needed to detect small differences among these simplified communities. We evaluated the suitability of pitfall traps for comparing the effects of cropping systems on arthropod communities. In a field experiment, we compared the effects of two pitfall trap diameters, the type of preserving fluid and the sampling effort on three metrics (activity density, taxonomic richness, and community weighted mean [CWM] of body size) for carabids and spiders. Trap size affected the observed composition of communities, with large traps yielding a higher proportion of spiders, and a higher richness and CWM body size for both taxa. The type of preserving fluid had a weaker effect. Simulations with various sampling efforts showed that only very different communities could be distinguished with less than 10 traps per field or less than 30 field replicates. Fewer traps were required to find differences between cropping systems for body size than for other metrics. Carabid activity density and body size, and spider genus richness, were the variables better distinguishing between cropping systems with the smallest sampling effort. A high sampling effort was required for comparing activity density and richness across cropping systems. Selection of the most appropriate trap design, metrics, and crops are the main factors for optimizing the trade-off between sampling effort and the ability to detect arthropod community responses to habitat management.

Favoriser la transition agroécologique suppose de modifier en profondeur les systèmes agricoles, en particulier en valorisant les processus naturels. La conception de systèmes agroécologiques mobilise les connaissances des acteurs, dont les connaissances des agriculteurs acquises par la formalisation. Nous avons dans cet objectif développé trois outils standardisés de capitalisation et de partage des connaissances. Ces outils ont été testés avec des utilisateurs, concepteurs de systèmes agroécologiques ou avec des contributeurs qui produisent et alimentent ces outils. Nous montrons que la capitalisation collective, entre des acteurs agricoles dispersés sur le territoire et dans différents organismes de développement agricole, favorise l’enrichissement des outils. Dans les perspectives, nous considérons l’usage d’une plateforme en ligne pour soutenir la production et le partage de ces outils de capitalisation des connaissances. Mots clés : connaissances issues de l’action, formalisation de connaissances, atelier de capitalisation, outils de capitalisation, tests d’usage

Plant taxonomic and functional diversity promotes interactions at higher trophic levels, but the contribution of functional diversity effects to multitrophic interactions and ecosystem functioning remains unclear. We investigated this relationship in a factorial field experiment comparing the effect of contrasting plant communities on parasitism rates in five herbivore species. We used a mechanistic trait-matching approach between plant and parasitoids to determine the amount of nectar available and accessible to parasitoids. This trait-matching approach best explained the rates of parasitism of each herbivorous species, confirming the predominant role of mass-ratio effects. We found evidence for an effect of functional diversity only in analyses considering the ability of plant communities to support the parasitism of all herbivores simultaneously. Multi-species parasitism was maximal at intermediate levels of functional diversity. Plant specific richness had a negligible influence relative to functional metrics. Plant communities providing large amounts of accessible nectar and with intermediate levels of functional diversity were found to be the most likely to enhance the conservation biological control of diverse crop herbivores.

Wildflower strips and biodiversity-friendly management are promoted as ways of enhancing biodiversity and natural pest control in agroecosystems. Their efficacy for providing resources and shelters for natural enemies has been well studied, but little is known about how wildflower strip efficacy is mediated by local field management and landscape composition. In this study, we explored the effects of floral resources in perennial flower strips on faba bean aphids and their antagonists in contrasting cropping systems and landscapes. We surveyed 13 faba bean crops in northern France in 2019, and 19 in 2020. We sampled aphids ( Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum ) and their antagonists (Syrphidae, Coccinellidae and mummy-forming parasitoids) on three dates during the spring, by visual observation. We assessed the floral resources provided by wildflower strips and spontaneous field margins and collected data on field management practices and land use in the surrounding landscape. We found that the percentage of flowering species in field edges providing accessible nectar to predators had a positive effect on the abundance of Syrphidae and aphid mummies on faba bean plants. The positive effect of nectar resources on Syrphidae and parasitoids decreased with increases in the proportion of semi-natural habitats in the landscape, but no interaction was observed with local management techniques. The temporal dynamics of Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum populations were unaffected by their antagonists. The dynamics of A. fabae populations was driven principally by local management practices (i.e. insecticide spraying and tillage). Conversely, the temporal dynamics of A. pisum populations was driven principally by landscape composition (i.e. the proportion of semi-natural habitats and leguminous plants) and was negatively related to insecticide use. Nevertheless, insecticide spraying did not prevent increases in the growth rates of both aphid species, highlighting the need for alternative methods for controlling aphid populations.

National audience; To assess the competitive ability of plant species, ecologists describe many species from contrasting habitats with traits that are proxies of ecophysiological functions whereas agronomists describe few species from similar habitats with process-based parameters. Here, we combined both approaches and compared many contrasting crop and weed species of temperate European arable crops in terms of competition for light, to understand weed response to shading by crop canopies and to choose light-competitive crop species and varieties. We (1) measured species parameters that drive light-competition processes in 26 crop and 35 weed species of temperate European arable cropping systems, (2) related the parameter values to species features that are easier to measure or available in databases. Early plant-growth parameters (relative growth rate RGR, initial leaf area) were measured in optimal light and nutrient conditions in a greenhouse with automatic non-destructive measurements. Potential plant morphology in unshaded conditions (specific leaf area SLA, leaf biomass ratio LBR, plant height and width per unit biomass HM and WM, vertical leaf distribution) was measured in garden plots in optimal light and nutrient conditions and harvested at 4–5 stages. Shading response was measured by comparing potential morphology to that of plants grown under shading nets. We confirmed well-known relationships (lower SLA and LBR in legumes vs non-legumes…), included new species features (base temperature, photosynthetic pathway…), and established relationships for the new shading-response parameters (weeds respond more to shade than crops, by increasing LBR, SLA, HM and WM…). Some correlations reported in ecology (RGR vs SLA…) were not verified on our species pool from arable temperate fields. Shade-response parameters explained species responses to habitat described by Ellenberg indexes, e.g., when shaded, shade-loving species (low Ellenberg-L values) increased SLA and HM to increase light interception.

International audience; The intercropping of rapeseed with frost-sensitive companion plants (CP) has recently been proposed as a way to mitigate the negative environmental impact of rapeseed crops. Using mixed-effect linear models, we compared the yield and weed amounts of rapeseed intercropped with different CP species with that of rapeseed as a sole crop in an unique dataset of 79 field experiments covering a wide range of climate, soil and practices conditions in the northwestern part of France, from 2009 to 2015. Bayesian model averaging procedure was used to determine the relative contributions of sites characteristics to the effects of intercropping.& para;& para;Before winter, field pea and faba bean had accumulated the largest amounts of dry mass, with more than 100 g m(-2). Rapeseed biomass was reduced by 56% by non-legume CPs and by only 18% by legume CPs, the largest decrease being caused by pea. Non-legumes decreased the nitrogen nutrition index of rapeseed by 7%, whereas pea and faba bean increased this index by 6% and 3%, respectively. Intercropping with non-legume and legume CPs reduced weed amounts by 52% and 38% respectively, with no difference between CP species. Non legume CPs decreased rapeseed yield at harvest by 0.581 ha(-1), whereas faba bean and faba bean + lentil in creased yield by 0.16 and 0.12 t ha(-1) respectively, when fertilized at the recommended rate. Intercropping with faba bean, lentil or a mixture of both made it possible to reduce nitrogen applications by 30-40 kg ha(-1) with no significant decrease in rapeseed yield. Faba bean and faba bean + lentil mixtures had the best overall performance. This work suggests that intercropping rapeseed is promising, particularly in soils with low nitrogen content with an early sowing date in the late summer.

International audience; AbstractCrops compete with weeds for light, and choosing competitive crop species contributes to managing weeds. The objective was to identify which crop and weed parameters related to competition for light drive weed harmfulness for crop production. In a previous experiment, we measured parameters to characterize species potential plant morphology in unshaded conditions and species response to shading for a range of 60 crop and annual weed species. Here, we integrated the measured parameter values into an existing simulation model that uses an individual-based 3D representation of crop-weed canopies to predict weed dynamics and crop production from pedoclimate and cropping system information. The model, i.e. FlorSys, was used to run virtual experiments in seven French and Spanish regions, with 272 cropping systems varying in terms of crop rotations, herbicide use and tillage intensity etc. A series of statistical methods (RLQ, fourth corner analysis, Principal Component Analysis, Pearson correlation coefficients, analysis of variance) were used to identify the key weed and crop parameters that drive crop yield loss and other weed harmfulness indicators. The weed species that caused the highest yield loss had a large leaf area at emergence. When young, they presented a large specific leaf area and a uniform leaf area distribution along plant height. They were also taller per unit plant biomass and their populations were more homogeneous in terms of plant width. At later stages, harmful weed species presented a smaller interception area to herbicides, with thicker leaves located lower on the plant. When shaded, harmful weed species shifted their leaves upwards and decreased their plant width per unit biomass. Weed-suppressive crop species had a large specific leaf area, wider plants per unit biomass, and a uniform leaf area distribution along plant height. When shaded, they increased their plant height and width per unit biomass. There was a trade-off between parameters driving potential crop production and those minimizing weed-inflicted yield losses.

[Departement_IRSTEA]Territoires [ADD1_IRSTEA]Dynamique et fonctionnement des écosystèmesChapter 1; International audience; The Green Revolution and the introduction of chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides and high yield crops had enabled to increase food production in the mid and late 20th. The benefits of this agricultural intensification have however reached their limits since yields are no longer increasing for many crops, negative externalities on the environment and human health are now recognized and economic inequality between farmers have increased. Agroecology has been proposed to secure food supply with fewer or lower negative environmental and social impacts than intensive agriculture. Agroecology principles are based on the recognition that biodiversity in agroecosystems can provide more than only food, fibre and timber. Hence, biodiversity and its associated functions, such as pollination, pest control, and mechanisms that maintain or improve soil fertility, may improve production efficiency and sustainability of agroecosystems. Although appealing, promoting ecological-based agricultural production is not straightforward since agroecosystems are socio-ecosystems with complex interactions between the ecological and social systems that act at different spatial and temporal scales. To be operational, agroecology thus requires understanding the relationships between biodiversity, functions and management, as well as to take into account the links between agriculture, ecology and the society. Here we review current knowledge on (i) the effect of landscape context on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and (ii) trophic and non-trophic interactions in ecological networks in agroecosystems. In particular, many insights have been made these two previous decades on (i) the interacting effects of management and landscape characteristics on biodiversity, (ii) the crucial role of plant diversity in delivering multiple services and (iii) the variety of ecological belowground mechanisms determining soil fertility in interaction with aboveground processes. However, we also pinpointed the absence of consensus on the effects of landscape heterogeneity on biodiversity and the need for a better mechanistic understanding of the effects of landscape and agricultural variables on farmland food webs and related services. We end by proposing new research avenues to fill knowledge gaps and implement agroecological principles within operational management strategies.

International audience; The role of biodiversity in the delivery of ecosystem services is increasingly being studied by trait-based functional approaches. Here, we review and discuss the contribution of a trait-based approach to understanding plant–arthropod interactions and improving conservation biological control. The stable biological control of multispecies herbivore communities requires functional diversity and a redundancy of natural enemies, including specialists and generalists, with minimal antagonistic interactions. The management of arthropod communities through plant community requires the plant community to perform several functions, including the provision of diversified trophic resources and appropriate physical habitats. Many studies have investigated the ability of plants to provide these functions, but many of the results obtained were limited to single species. The description of communities in terms of traits underlying trophic and non-trophic interactions between plants and animals would make it possible to extrapolate findings to other species. Studies on plant–herbivore and plant–pollinator interactions have identified several traits as important for trophic resource provision, in terms of resource quantity, accessibility, quality and temporal availability. By contrast, traits relating to physical habitat provision and microclimate modification have been little explored. Several metrics describing the functional composition and diversity of communities have been proposed, to extend the trait-based approach to plant community level, but the extent to which multitrophic communities are affected by plant traits remains largely unexplored. The next step will be to identify the combinations of these plant community metrics best explaining their impact on arthropod communities and disentangling the roles of plant functional composition and diversity.

Prod 2017-344g SPE équipe EA GESTAD INRA; National audience; Les habitats semi-naturels en bordure des parcelles agricoles sont censés jouer un rôle clé dans la régulation des ravageurs des cultures via notamment une augmentation de la diversité végétale locale. La communauté végétale influence la survie et la performance des ennemis naturels des ravageurs en leur fournissant des ressources alimentaires (nectar, pollen, proies alternatives) et des abris. Un effet positif de la végétation en bordure a été aussi démontré pour la régulation des adventices par les carabes granivores (Labruyère et al. 2016). Cependant l’effet positif sur les ennemis naturels ne se traduit pas toujours par une réduction de l’abondance des ravageurs ou adventives. L’identification des mécanismes écologiques impliqués dans les interactions complexes entre les plantes de bordure, les ennemis naturels et les ravageurs/adventices est indispensable afin d’améliorer ce service écosystémique dans une démarche de l’ingénierie agro-écologique. Nous présentons plusieurs études qui ont été menées dans le cadre du projet PEERLESS et des projets associés. Ces études avaient pour objectif de (1) tester l’influence de la communauté végétale sur la régulation des ravageurs des cultures et (2) identifier les groupes fonctionnels de la végétation qui influencent la régulation, (3) analyser les déplacements des ennemis naturels entre la végétation des bordures et l’intérieur des parcelles agricoles et (4) évaluer les effets de différents aménagements de bordures (bandes fleuries et enherbées, haies) sur les populations d’auxiliaires et de bioagresseurs. Les travaux ont été réalisés dans les parcelles agricoles des régions Pays-de-la-Loire, Bretagne, Îlede- France, Bourgogne et Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Pour la plupart des études, la composition floristique de la végétation a été caractérisée en même temps que l’abondance des ravageurs principaux et de leurs ennemis naturels. Différentes méthodes de marquage (protéique, isotopique) ont été utilisées pour tracer les déplacements des insectes. Les études ont permis d’identifier les groupes fonctionnels et les espèces végétales au sein de ces groupes qui sont positivement/négativement corrélés à la régulation de plusieurs groupes des ravageurs. En particulier, les espèces entomophiles qui fleurissement lors de l’infestation maximale des ravageurs principaux ont un effet positif sur l’abondance des ennemis naturels ce qui se traduit par une augmentation de prédation et de parasitisme (Bischoff et al. 2016, Pollier et al in revision). Les méthodes de marquage ont réussi de tracer les déplacements des insectes ciblés. Les parasitoïdes ayant consommé le nectar C13 fournit par les plantes marquées en bordure d’une parcelle de colza ont été retrouvés à une distance de 20m à l’intérieur (Pollier et al. 2016). Le marquage des bordures avec la protéine de l’oeuf (ovalbumine) a démontré les déplacements des carabes et des araignées sur toute la surface d’un verger. Cependant des grandes différences de mobilité entre habitat semi-naturel et cultures adjacentes ont été mises en évidence entre groupes et espèces d’ennemis naturels (Lefèbvre et al. 2017). Les tests d’aménagement des bordures ont confirmé l’effet positif des habitats riches en ressources florales (mélanges fleuris) sur la régulation des ravageurs. Les haies et les mélanges de graminées (« bandes enherbées ») sont moins favorables à la prédation et le parasitisme des ravageurs (Albert et al. 2017). Néanmoins, les habitats pauvres en ressources florales peuvent abriter les ennemis naturels qui ne dépendent pas directement du nectar ou du pollen.

25 pages; International audience; Integrating principles of ecological intensification into weed management strategies requires an understanding of the many relationships among weeds, crops and other organisms of agro-ecosystems in a changing context. Extensively used during the last two decades in weed science, trait-based approaches have provided general insights into weed community response to agricultural practices, and recently to understanding the effect of weeds on agro-ecosystem functioning. In this review, we provide a holistic synthesis of the current knowledge on weed response and effect functional traits. Based on the literature and recent advances in weed science, we review current knowledge on (i) weed functional groups and ecological strategies, (ii) weed functional response traits to cropping systems and (iii) weed functional effect traits affecting agro-ecosystem functioning. For each functional trait, we explicitly present the assumptions and evidence on the linkage between trait values and ecological functions, in response to either management practices, for example tillage, sowing and herbicides, or biotic interactions, for example crop–weed competition and pollination. Finally, we address and discuss major research avenues that may significantly improve the use of traits and the knowledge of functional diversity in weed science for the future, especially to design and implement more environmentally sustainable weed management strategies.

Companion plant intercropping involves growing a cash crop with another plant that is not harvested, to confer a set of benefits on the crop and the environment. Weed control and herbicide use reduction are one of the principal reasons for adopting this approach. Companion plants should compete with weeds for light, nutrients and water, but they may also compete with the crop. The species grown must therefore be carefully chosen and managed so as to outcompete weeds but limit competition with the crop and yield loss. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to quantify the effects of companion plants on weed regulation and cash crop yields, and to analyze their sources of variability. We reviewed different intercropping systems involving an annual cash crop and a legume companion plant from around the world. We report data from 34 scientific articles, corresponding to 476 experimental units (i.e. combinations of site × year × cash crop × legume companion plant species × agricultural practices), and we explore whether intercropping with legume companion plants can control weeds while maintaining crop yield. Yield and weed biomass ratios were analyzed as response variables. We used the type of cash crop (straw cereals, maize or other crops), the methods used to establish the companion plants (living mulch, synchronized sowing or relay intercropping) and the overlap between the growth periods of the companion plants and the cash crop as explanatory variables. Intercropping with a companion plant resulted in a lower weed biomass and a higher yield (win-win situation) than non-weeded or weeded control treatments, in 52% and 36%, respectively, of the experimental units considered. A higher weed biomass associated with a lower yield (lose-lose) was observed in only 13% and 26% of the experimental units, in comparisons with non-weeded and weeded control treatments, respectively. Considering all the experimental units together, the companion plants had no significant effect on cash crop yield, but significantly decreased weed biomass, by 56% relatively to a non-weeded control treatment, and 42% relative to a weeded control treatment. The greatest benefits from companion plant intercropping were reported for maize, with yields 37% higher than those for non-weeded control treatments. The other explanatory variables tested had no significant effect on yield or weed control. Thus, the use of legume companion plants generally seems to enhance weed control without reducing crop yield, but the conditions giving rise to win-win situations should be explored further, to encourage the spread of this technique among farmers.

How does earthworm functional diversity affect rapeseed-weeds interactions ? . International Conference on Ecological Sciences

Early plant establishment through seed germination and seedling emergence is a crucial process that determines seedling number, emergence time distribution and the early growth of seedlings, all of which are affected by soil climate and soil structure. In the current context of climate change, in which increasing the diversity of cultivated species is considered desirable, and new tillage practices are considerably modifying top-soil surface characteristics, we need to improve our ability to model the effects of the environment on plant establishment. Using a trait-based and model-based framework, we aimed to identify general relationships between seed and seedling traits (e.g. seed mass and lipid content, seedling diameter, base temperature) and germination and emergence model parameters (e.g. time to mid-germination, shoot elongation rate) measured for 18 genotypes belonging to 14 species. Relationships were also investigated among model parameters or traits. Germination rates were faster for species with a high base temperature and for species with seed reserves located principally in the embryo (rather than the endosperm or perisperm). During heterotrophic growth, maximal shoot length and elongation rate increased with seed dry mass. The sensitivity of seedlings to soil obstacles was negatively related to shoot diameter. Thus apart from the known effects of seed mass on seedling establishment, we found that seed reserve location, seedling shoot diameter and shape affected germination rate and emergence success. Such generic rules linking plant traits to germination and emergence parameters enhance our understanding of the determinants of environmental effects on plant establishment success.

Weed dynamics models are needed to test prospective cropping systems but are rarely evaluated with independent data (validated). Here, we evaluated the FlorSys model which quantifies the effects of cropping systems and pedoclimate on multispecific weed dynamics with a daily time step. We adapted existing validation methodologies and uncertainty analyses to account for multi-specific, multi-annual and diverse outputs, focusing on missing input data, incomplete and imprecise weed time series. Field data ranged from entirely monitored cropping system trials to annual snapshots recorded on farm fields by the French Biovigilance-Flore network. FlorSys satisfactorily predicted weed seed bank, plant densities and crop yields, at daily and multi-annual scales, at well monitored sites. It overestimated plant biomass and underestimated total flora density. Missing processes (photoperiod dependency in flowering, crop:weed competition for nitrogen) and inadequately predicted scenarios (weed dynamics in untilled fields, floras with summer-emerging species) were identified. Guidelines for model use were proposed. Weed dynamics models must be validated before using them for cropping system design.Methods were developed to evaluate a mechanistic model with incomplete data sets.Data sets comprise cropping system trials and a farm field survey network.FlorSys's domain of validity and guidelines for simulations were determined.Missing processes necessary for predicting weed dynamics in fields were identified.

Gardarin A, Durr C & Colbach N (2009). Which model species for weed seedbank and emergence studies? A review. Weed Research49, 117–130. Summary Models predicting the effects of cropping systems on weed demography are important tools for testing new rules for integrated weed management that may reduce the use of herbicides and preserve the biodiversity of agro-ecosystems. Such models already exist for a few species and should now be extended to a larger flora, in order to predict and understand the effects of agricultural practices on the evolution of weed communities. This review analysed the literature from 1973 to 2006, focusing on 45 species, to identify past reasons for choosing particular species when modelling the effects of cropping systems on the processes leading to seedling emergence. The frequency or harmfulness of the species were the main reason for studying them. It appears that the studied species were mainly autumn-emerging in north-western Europe cropping systems and summer-emerging in North America; the effects of deep soil tillage were studied mainly in Europe, as simplified sowing techniques are more often practised in North America. A voluminous literature exists on seed persistence in the soil, dormancy, germination and emergence, but rarely with the attempt of establishing generic relationships between species characteristics and model parameters. Until now, such an approach has been mostly developed in ecological studies. Taxa, as well as ecological preferences, seed size and the relationships of these characteristics with weed emergence model parameters should be considered when selecting a range of species for multi-specific modelling purposes.

National audience

International audience; Seed dormancy contributes to species persistence in unpredictable environments and is a key process to be taken into account in weed dynamics models. As the level of seed dormancy, photosensitivity and the dates of dormancy induction and release are difficult to measure, our objective was to relate weed seed dormancy with morphological, chemical or physiological seed traits and with expert knowledge. Dormancy of four species was studied experimentally during a 2-year seed burial experiment. Experiments were supplemented with data from the literature to increase the number of species analysed, resulting in a data set of 29 species. Proportions of non–dormant seeds were higher for elongated than spherical seeds, even when accounting for phylogenetic relatedness between species. Elongated seeds, which tend to remain on the soil surface in undisturbed habitats, may have been selected for lack of dormancy and immediate germination to limit mortality due to predation. Dormancy increased with seed coat thickness, which can act as a chemical and physical barrier to germination, while no relation was found with seed lipid or protein content. No correlation was found between photosensitivity parameters and any of the species traits analysed. Variations in dormancy dates (induction and release) were highly correlated with average field emergence season estimated from expert knowledge. The observed correlations suggest that the level of dormancy results both from direct and from indirect effects of traits being involved in trade-offs together with seed mortality.

[Departement_IRSTEA]Territoires [TR1_IRSTEA]SEDYVIN; International audience; 1. Dry matter digestibility is a critical component of herbage nutritive value, a major service delivered by grasslands. The aim of this study was to test whether the dominance hypothesis applies to assess the impacts of environmental gradients and management regimes on thiscomponent of herbage nutritive value in permanent grasslands. 2. At the plant level, digestibility has been related to a number of functional traits, but whether this can be scaled up to the community level in species-rich grasslands and how such relationships are modulated by environmental conditions and management regimes remainunknown. Our primary objective was to test whether community-weighted means – species trait values weighted by the species abundance – of morphological, phenological and chemical traits could be used to explain variations in digestibility over a large range of climatic contexts,soil resource levels and management regimes. Our second objective was to explain variations in community digestibility within and among nine contrasting sites along large natural and man-induced environmental gradients.3. Over the whole data set, digestibility and most community-weighted means of traits responded to climatic factors and management regimes, but relations were not always significant when each site was considered separately. Community digestibility was significantly related to one or more plant traits within each site and to all of the measured traits when considering all the sites. Leaf dry matter content (LDMC) had the most consistent effects on digestibility, with a strikingly similar negative effect within each site. Potential evapotranspiration was negatively related to digestibility and contributed to explain a large part of the among-site variance. In addition, a low return interval of disturbance and a high disturbance intensity (biomass removal) were both associated with a high digestibility.4. Synthesis and applications. Disturbance regime, plant traits and local climate impacted dry matter digestibility roughly equally in grasslands. The effects of community composition on digestibility and its response to abiotic factors could be successfully captured by community weightedmeans of leaf dry matter content. This functional marker can be used to develop indicators and grassland management rules to support farmers in the refinement of their practices towards specific needs, such as target production outputs.

Weeds are both harmful for crop production and important for biodiversity, while herbicides can pollute the environment. We thus need new cropping systems optimising all cultural techniques, reconciling agricultural production, herbicide reduction and biodiversity conservation. Here, we show how to (i) develop models quantifying the effects of cropping systems on weed dynamics, (ii) integrate interactions between weeds and other organisms, (iii) predict the impact on production and biodiversity and (iv) use the model for multicriteria evaluation and multiobjective design of cropping systems. Among the existing weed dynamics models, we chose the one closest to our requirements to illustrate these different steps, that is, FlorSys which predicts multispecific weed dynamics as a function of cultural techniques and pedoclimate. We have illustrated the development of interaction submodels with the example of a crop pathogen whose propagation is increased when infecting grass weeds. To evaluate the weed flora impact, predicted weed densities were translated into indicators of harmfulness (crop yield loss, technical harvest problems, harvest pollution, field infestation, crop disease increase) and biodiversity (weed species richness and equitability, trophic resources for birds, insects and pollinators). Simulations were run over several years and with different weather scenarios (i) to optimise cultural techniques to control harmful weeds, (ii) to analyse the impact of changing agricultural practices (e.g. simplified tillage and rotations, no-till, temporary crops) on weed density, species and trait composition and (iii) to evaluate cropping systems for their ability to reconcile agricultural production and biodiversity, thus identifying levers for designing sustainable cropping systems.

Early growth is a critical phase of the crop cycle, which lasts from emergence to the beginning of competition between plants and is sensitive to sowing conditions and species characteristics. Providing tools to improve the management of this critical phase in intercrops is a challenge for agroecology as these cropping systems are the subject of renewed interest for their ability to maintain yields while requiring fewer inputs. The aim of the present study was to investigate variations in early growth under different sowing conditions in different species with contrasted seed and seedling characteristics (seed mass, hypogeal or epigeal emergence, and legume and non-legume species), especially species used as intercrops. Experiments were carried out in glasshouses using different sowing depths and levels of mineral nutrition, first for each species separately, then in mixed sowings. In the first set of experiments, biomass at emergence and relative growth rate after emergence were measured and then modelled as a function of seed mass, mineral nutrition, and time to emergence. Predictive equations were tested by comparing simulations with biomass measured in the second set of experiments, for two intercrops grown under varied sowing conditions. Finally, simulations were run to analyse variations in the early growth of two intercrops (durum wheat/pea or alfalfa) under a wider range of sowing conditions (seed mass, sowing depth, and with or without mineral nutrition). Biomass at emergence was positively correlated with seed mass, and in epigeal species, was also negatively impacted by time to emergence. Relative growth rate was highly stimulated by mineral nutrition whereas its response to time to emergence varied among species. The amount of seminal reserves at emergence (in hypogeal species) and the cotyledon specific mass (in epigeal species) were correlated with the establishment of the relative growth rate. When evaluated, the model was shown to satisfactorily predict the early growth of two intercrops. Used as a simulation tool, the model indicated that all the sowing techniques tested can have a major influence on total biomass and on the proportion of each component species when competition begins. This model can thus contribute to the management of sowing techniques for sole as well as combined crops whose effects are difficult to predict and are also difficult to analyse from field experiments alone because of the number of possible combinations and interactions.

International audience; Seed germination partly depends on both base temperature (Tb) and base water potential (Ψb), which currently are known only for a small number of species. Laboratory experiments were conducted to estimate these parameters for 14 weed species using the ‘x‐intercept’ method. Tb and Ψb (°C and MPa) for the 14 weed species were as follows: Amaranthus retroflexus (8.9 and −0.95), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (3.6 and −1.28), Avena fatua (2.2 and −1.02), Capsella bursa‐pastoris (4.5 and −0.95), Chenopodium album (5.9 and −0.80), Echinochloa crus‐galli (6.2 and −1.19), Geranium dissectum (0.6 and −3.31), Matricaria perforata (2.0 and −0.75), Picris echioides (5.2 and −0.79), Polygonum lapathifolium (5.8 and −1.55), Senecio vulgaris (2.5 and −1.23), Setaria pumila (8.6 and −0.75), Solanum nigrum (11.6 and −0.89) and Veronica hederifolia (0.2 and −1.67). The two parameters were used to determine potential germination times during expected non‐dormancy periods for three contrasting climatic years in Dijon, France. The number of potential germination days varied little among the tested climatic years, but substantially among species, ranging from 95 ± 9 days for V. hederifolia to 280 ± 7 days for M. perforata. These results may be of value for development of predictive growth models and understanding times when weed control may be most feasible.

EA SPE EcolDur GEAPSI CT3 CT1EA SPE EcolDur GEAPSI CT3 CT1; The main part of the life-cycle of weeds, especially in cultivated fields, is spent as seeds buried in the soil. Longevity and dormancy are two major traits driving weed survival and infestation in the framework of crop rotation and management. Modelling allows inference of these key processes from morpho-anatomical description of the seeds, thus avoiding long-term germination studies of buried seeds over the years. Two new sets of experimental data on two different weeds offer the opportunity to compare actual results to predicted values. This study deals with cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), a winter weed of cereals and oilseed rape in regression in Western Europe, and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), a spring-emerging weed in oilseed rape and cereals abundant in acidic soil. Cornflower has naked seeds while wild radish seeds are protected from water and oxygen access and fungal and bacterial attacks within pod segments. In addition, we used small and large-seeded populations of wild radish in order to increase morphological variation. Seeds were buried in the soil 30 cm below surface, and a fraction was excavated every month for three years, and then tested for survival and dormancy. Survival of cornflower seeds declined quickly after two years while no mortality was observed for wild radish. The prediction of longevity in terms of seed coat thickness fitted the expected range of values. Both species displayed seasonal dormancy, the peak of germination being delayed by two months for wild radish versus cornflower. Consequences on life-cycle and infestation potential are discussed as well as the efficiency of interpolating traits values from other species.

Models quantifying the effects of cropping systems on weed life-cycles, in interaction with environmental conditions, are invaluable tools to evaluate and design integrated cropping systems. In the past, we have developed such a model called A lomy S ys for a single grass weed species. The objective of the present paper was to extend the monospecific emergence model to a multi-specific weed flora, by removing a few non-generic processes (e.g. maternal effects on dormancy and germination) and by adapting the germination sub-model to a larger diversity of species. The model is based on a daily simulation of weed seedbank mortality, seasonal dormancy variations, germination and pre-emergent growth until seedling emergence, in interaction with cropping systems and environmental conditions. In order to parameterize the model for numerous and contrasting species, we developed an innovative approach consisting in estimating 25 parameters from easily accessible species traits or from empirical expert knowledge. Relationships were established between seed traits (e.g. seed coat thickness, mass or shape) and seed mortality rates, dormancy levels, speed of germination as well as pre-emergent mortality. Base temperature for germination and dates of dormancy variations were related to usual dates of the species emergence in fields, obtained from expert knowledge. The generic model structure and the trait–parameter relationships make it possible to simulate a wide diversity of weed species and to predict their response to a large range of cropping systems. Thanks to a daily time-step and the integration of the interactions with soil and climatic conditions, F lor S ys permits to optimize the choice of cultural techniques for weed management, as a function of field characteristics and previous technical operations. For instance, the model was used to compare the emergence of different weed species depending on tillage, in interaction with the preceding technical operations.

International audience; In fields, the timing of weed emergence flushes is mostly related to the timing and rate of seed germination, which depend on seed dormancy level, soil temperature and water potential conditions as well as soil tillage and crop sowing date. Seed germination parameters are essential in weed dynamics models to account for the effects of soil conditions on weed demography. Since these parameters are difficult to measure, our objective was to test the possibility of estimating them from easily accessible information. Seed germination parameters (germination lag-time, time to mid-germination and mid-germination rate) were measured or collected from the literature for 25 weed species with contrasted seed characteristics. Correlations were then searched for between these parameters and morphological, chemical and physiological seed traits as well as seed dormancy level. The dormancy level was positively correlated with speed of germination parameters. Earliness of germination was positively correlated with seed lipid content and the seed area to mass ratio. Germination was also earlier and faster in species with a high base temperature for germination. These relationships explained about half the observed variability in germination speed parameters but should be further tested before being used to predict the germination behaviour of weed species in the field in different seasons.

International audience; In fields, the timing of weed emergence flushes is mostly related to the timing and rate of seed germination, which depend on soil temperature and water potential as well as soil tillage and crop sowing date. Base temperature and base water potential for seed germination are parameters required in weed dynamics models to take into account the effects of soil conditions on weed demography. Since these parameters are difficult to measure, our objective was to develop a method for estimating them from easily accessible information.Data on base temperature and base water potential for germination were collected from the literature for 28 weed species. Correlations were then searched for between these parameters and (i) the species ecological indicator values of Landolt and Ellenberg for temperature and moisture and (ii) dates of the onset and end of weed emergence based on experts’ knowledge.Both base temperature and base water potential for germination were partially correlated with the species indicator values found in the literature. These correlations explained however only a small proportion of the variance of base temperature and water potential. In contrast, the base temperature of spring-emerging species was highly correlated with the mean soil temperature at the mean onset date of each species’ spring emergence flush. Water potential for germination was higher for species requiring high base temperature. The date of spring emergence onset of a species, which can be easily assessed from experts’ knowledge, can thus be used to estimate their base temperature and then their base water potential for germination.

Models that quantify the effects of cropping systems on weed dynamics are useful tools for testing innovative cropping systems. In these models, seed mortality in the soil is a key parameter to account for the cumulated effect of cropping systems over time via the soil seed-bank. Since seed mortality is difficult to measure, our objective was to develop a method to estimate it from easily accessible information. Seeds of 13 weed species were buried 30 cm deep in fields and were recovered regularly for 2 years to measure their viability. Seed mass, dimensions, shape, and protein and lipid contents as well as coat thickness were measured. To estimate seed mortality of species not included in the study, we searched for relationships between mortality rates and seed traits. Seed viability mainly decreased during the second year of burial, with mortality rates ranging from 0.01 to 0.63 seeds·seeds− 1·year− 1, depending on the species. Seed mortality decreased with increasing seed coat thickness. No correlation was found with other measured traits or with seed persistence data in the literature. These results were confirmed when the effects of phylogenetic relatedness with phylogenetically independent contrasts were included. The thickness of the seed coat, which varied between 17 and 231 μm over the range of species studied, can protect the seed from external attacks in the soil and slow down seed decay. This trait can be easily measured via X-ray images and could be used to estimate the seed mortality rate for a wider range of species.

Gardarin A, Durr C & Colbach N (2010). Effects of seed depth and soil aggregates on the emergence of weeds with contrasting seed traits. Weed Research50, 91–101. Summary Tillage has a strong impact on weed emergence by burying seeds in the soil and modifying soil structure. Its influence can vary according to seed and seedling characteristics. This article focuses on shoot and radicle elongation in the soil and on seedling mortality caused by soil obstacles. Germinated seeds of nine contrasting weeds were planted in pots and grown in the dark to measure shoot and radicle elongation. Second, the proportion of seedlings blocked under aggregates (20–50 mm) was measured. Shoot growth rate, maximal shoot and radicle lengths were positively correlated with seed mass. Large-seeded species (e.g. Avena fatua) were more likely to emerge from greater depths (exceeding 20 cm deep). Seedling mortality increased with increasing obstacle size for all species; it was greater for monocotyledonous than for dicotyledonous species and decreased with the shoot diameter. Weed seed depth and soil structure influence emergence of weed species differently, depending on seed mass, shoot diameter and taxa. Including the results of this study in a cropping system-weed dynamics model would help to predict responses of weeds species to tillage.

Comment la diversité fonctionnelle des vers de terre modifie les interactions entre plantes dans un couvert associé ?. TEBIS V, Traits écologiques et biologiques des invertébrés du sol

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One of the adaptations of weeds to highly disturbed environments is a persistent seedbank; meaning there can often be a lag of several years in the response of a weed flora to a change in management. This buffering effect of the seedbank is a challenge to understanding weed dynamics through empirical field experiments that tend to be short-lived. One solution for this effect is to simulate the response of weed populations to management in a computer model. Two approaches to modelling are discussed. The first draws on fundamental theory of plant ecological strategies to predict the shift in the distribution of weed functional traits under different management scenarios, and the second is a detailed, process-based model of weed population dynamics that is described with a worked case study example. This second approach also uses plant traits to parameterize the model and predict the function of emergent weed communities but has a more intensive requirement for parameterization. Models have a crucial role to play in predicting the persistence of weed populations in a field, but care should be taken in investing too much confidence in predictions of absolute weed numbers. Rather, models are a powerful tool for testing the relative efficacy of contrasting weed management scenarios.