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Green diesel is a real solution for the decarbonization process of the world, reducing in this way, carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere. The present work proposes a flexible biorefinery design where green diesel is produced by catalytic hydrotreatment of four vegetable oils: soybean, sunflower, palm, and cardoon oil feedstock. The process was simulated in Aspen Plus®. A multi-bed reactor composed of four catalytic beds with quenching cooling is designed and simulated in the presence of Ni-W/SiO2-Al2O3 catalyst, in addition to a separation phase train to obtain the green diesel. Sensitivity analyses were carried out to determine the parameter conditions of the unit operations. The results of the model reflex a molar conversion of triglycerides above 97% and overall mass yield into diesel fraction above 79%. Total capital costs and operating costs of the process were determined in the economic analysis, where a base case is considered for the calculations, obtaining the maximum vegetable oil market price can be sustainable to make economically convenient the biorefinery. Soybean oil resulted in the worst feedstock due to the high percentage of unsaturated bonds, while cardoon oil can be considered the best source to produce green diesel thanks to higher conversion yields.

The lignocellulosic biomass valorisation is a central challenge of the bioeconomy transition, which passes through optimization of the entire value chain, from feedstock availability, sustainable conversion processes, to final target products. In this framework, the oleaginous yeasts represent a versatile tool to produce biobased chemicals and intermediates. They are flexible microbial factories able to grow on different side-stream carbon sources such as those deriving from lignocellulosic biomass, and this characteristic makes them excellent candidates for integrated biorefinery processes through the production of microbial lipids/oils. This work aims at a techno-economic analysis of a lignocellulosic biorefinery producing microbial oils by oleaginous yeasts (Lipomyces tetrasporus). The wheat straw residues were considered as the lignocellulosic feedstock thanks to a huge amount in the European territory. Experimental data obtained by a complete lab-scale 2G-sugars platform (steam explosion pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation) were used for the analysis until microbic growth. Commercial/literature data were considered for the lipids extraction and purification stages. An assessment of the mass and energy balances, equipment sizing, costs estimation was carried out with the main results showing a production cost of the microbial oil about 4 €/kg with the enzymes supply as the major cost contribution.

Microbial lipids are renewable platforms for several applications including biofuels, green chemicals, and nutraceuticals that can be produced from several residual carbon sources. Lignocellulosic biomasses are abundant raw materials for the production of second-generation sugars with conversion yields depending on the quality of the hydrolysates and the metabolic efficiency of the microorganisms. In the present work, wheat straw pre-treated by steam explosion and enzymatically hydrolysed was converted into microbial lipids by Lipomyces tetrasporus DSM 70314. The preliminary optimization of the enzymatic hydrolysis was performed at the bench scale through the response surface methodology (RSM). The fermentation medium and set-up were optimized in terms of the nitrogen (N) source and carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio yielding to the selection of soy flour as a N source and C/N ratio of 160. The bench scale settings were scaled-up and further optimized at the 10 L-scale and finally at the 50 L pilot scale bioreactor. Process optimization also included oxygen supply strategies. Under optimized conditions, a lipid concentration of 14.8 gL−1 was achieved corresponding to a 23.1% w/w lipid yield and 67.4% w/w lipid cell content. Oleic acid was the most abundant fatty acid with a percentage of 57%. The overall process mass balance was assessed for the production of biodiesel from wheat straw.

Crude glycerol is the main by-product of the biodiesel manufacturing industry (10% w/w). Its use as a substrate in microbial fermentations is a concrete strategy to efficiently address its market surplus. In this study, the conversion of crude glycerol to citric acid, a key biochemical in the emerging bioeconomy, by a wild-type yeast Yarrowia lipolytica DSM 8218 was modelled using the Response Surface Methodology. The model relates C/N mass ratio and crude glycerol concentration to maximize the citric acid yield in flask scale using two different N sources, yeast extract and ammonium sulphate. Under the optimal conditions (yeast extract, C/N 141, glycerol 33 g/L), the conversion yield was 0.249 g/g. The optimal conditions were used for up-scaling a fed-batch fermentation in a 2 L bioreactor highlighting a metabolic shift from mannitol to citric acid when high stirring rates were applied (800 rpm). In these conditions, a morphic transition from pseudo-mycelial form to round-shaped yeast-like cells was observed too.

The agri-food industry annually produces huge amounts of crops residues and wastes, the suitable management of these products is important to increase the sustainability of agro-industrial production by optimizing the entire value chain. This is also in line with the driving principles of the circular economy, according to which residues can become feedstocks for novel processes. Oleaginous yeasts represent a versatile tool to produce biobased chemicals and intermediates. They are flexible microbial factories able to grow on different side-stream carbon sources such as those deriving from agri-food wastes, and this characteristic makes them excellent candidates for integrated biorefinery processes through the production of microbial lipids, known as single cell oils (SCOs), for different applications. This review aims to present an extensive overview of research progress on the production and use of oleaginous yeasts and present discussions on the current bottlenecks and perspectives of their exploitation in different sectors, such as foods, biofuels and fine chemicals.