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Policy problem: Policymakers must decide whether and how to regulate the development, sale, and use of emerging technologies so the security benefits outweigh the economic, technological, and political costs. They have faced that question before, so lessons can be learned from historical experience. It has never been easy to get agreement about what types of governance mechanisms are most desirable, or to implement those controls effectively enough to achieve the security objectives. Many different approaches have been tried but only some legacy arrangements could be applied to emerging technologies, while others would do more harm than good. Four features make the current iteration of the dual-use problem particularly challenging. (1) Emerging technologies are largely intangible rather than physical. (2) The private sector is now the main engine for innovation, often independent from and resistant to government control. (3) Concerns about dual-use emerging technologies expand beyond their relevance to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to their much broader utility for conventional warfighting. (4) Political and economic relations among the countries at the forefront of technology innovation are also very complex and uncertain, further complicating efforts to get agreement about what greatest security risks are, and what mix of competition and cooperation offers the most cost-effective way to reduce them. Methodology: This report employed a historical review of efforts to control dangerous dual-use technologies during and after the Cold War to identify key governance approaches and assess their effectiveness. This was followed by a socio-technical evaluation of five key emerging technologies including PNT, quantum computing, computer vision, hypersonics, and quantum sensing. The technical assessment focused on seven considerations that vary widely across different sectors to determine which strategic trade controls would be both feasible and desirable for a specific category or sub-category of emerging technology: technology makeup, fabrication process, stage of development and dispersion, dual-use applications, disruption mechanisms, stakeholder community and power distribution, and scientific promise. Key lessons for policymakers: The findings of the historical and technical survey contain important lessons for policymakers tasked with trying to manage the spread and use of emerging technologies: (1) Policymakers need to decide what the primary objective of strategic trade controls is. (2) The historical analysis shows that, even under relatively favorable geopolitical, economic, and technological conditions, any type of denial-based control effort will be a stopgap solution at best and is likely to have unintended negative consequences. (3) Using cooperative management as the primary governance approach for WMD relevant aspects of nuclear, chemical, and biological technologies has had strengths and weaknesses, too. (4) The socio-technological characteristics of critical emerging technology fields indicate that getting multi-stakeholder agreement on denial-based controls will be harder, implementation will be more challenging, and the outcomes will be less stable than they were in the past

本稿では、対面式タンデム学習において何がどのように学ばれているのかを明らかにするために、日本語学習者と日本語話者のやりとりの中で観察されたLRE（language related episode）を日本語話者のエキスパート性、LRE の種類、LRE の話題という三つの観点から分析した。また、e タンデムに関する研究でしばしば取り上げられる学習者の母語へのコード切り替えについても分析した。その結果、やりとりに現れるタンデム学習のパートナー同士の関係性は日本語話者のエキスパート性に影響を受けること、LRE の種類は学習活動の性質に影響を受けること、学習者の母語へのコード切り替えは学習者の言語能力の不足を補う以外の理由でも行われることがわかった。これらは、先行研究の知見に修正を加えるものである。

The United States has employed a wide range of foreign policy tools to try to stop North Korea’s nuclear weapons program, including two cooperative agreements that ultimately failed to produce the desired outcome. The breakdown of the 1994 Agreed Framework and the Six Party Talks process in the 2000s has led many to conclude that North Korea’s nuclear weapons program cannot be constrained through cooperation. According to this view, Pyongyang violated its previous commitments once it received economic and political benefits and it will do so again in any future negotiations. The underlying assumption is that Washington was fully implementing its own commitments until Pyongyang broke the deal. Is this true, or did U.S. domestic politics complicate the implementation of the agreements? This dissertation explores this question through a four-part case study using three analytical lenses: a rational actor model, an institutional interests model, and an individual mindset model. It finds that the United States retreated from full cooperation with North Korea not just because of Pyongyang’s actions, but also due to domestic political considerations. Washington reduced its level of cooperation when tolerance for concessions weakened in the domestic system, sometimes because of institutional interests and sometimes due to political maneuvers by individuals who favored stronger coercive measures and more concessions from North Korea. The study shows that domestic politics impacts not only the negotiation and ratification of international cooperation agreements, but also their implementation. The findings also suggest it is incorrect to assume that past engagement efforts did not succeed solely due to North Korean actions. Whether a more fully implemented engagement policy would have led to North Korea’s denuclearization is beyond the scope of this study, but it indicates U.S. policy was not applied consistently to North Korea. Any future engagement strategy should aim at a more consistent approach for it to produce the desired results.

「教師はすべてを知っている」、「教師は決して間違えない」という思い込みは、教師にも学習者にも広く浸透している。これはクランディニンとコネリー（Clandinin & Connelly, 1995a; 1995b）のいうところの「秘密の物語」と考えることができる。「秘密の物語」はあまりにも当たり前と思われていて、教師や学習者の意識にのぼることは少ないが、彼らの認識や行動に深く影響を与えている。本稿では「すべてを知っていて、決して間違えない教師」という「秘密の物語」が、教育経験のない教育実習生から経験の長い教師にまで影響を与え、彼らの不安の原因になっていることを、彼らの語るストーリーを例として挙げつつ示し、「秘密の物語」の克服法について提案を行った。

This article reviews studies on the concept ”praise”. Many studies have been conducted on praise in the field of psychology. These studies addressed the function of praise, its effect on motivation and emotion, its use in counseling and in the local community, guides to better praise, and the caution that must be exercised with regard to praise. Most of these studies have focused on the effect of praise and have been conducted from the perspective of the teachers and parents who praise children. However, there are few studies on children’s cognition of praise. Praise is communication; therefore, it needs to be researched from the viewpoint of both adults who praise children and children who are praised. This article highlights the need fro research from the viewpoint of children, particularly young, who are praised., 国立情報学研究所で電子化したコンテンツを使用している。

専門家による内省的実践は実証主義的研究によって生成された知識を使っているわけではない。実証主義が数学的論証によって一般的な命題を導きだすことを規範とするのに対して､専門家の｢行為の中の知｣と｢行為の中の内省｣はナラテイブによって表象される｡従って､専門家としての教師を対象にした研究あるいは教師による研究は､ナラティプ塾のアプローチをとる必要がある｡このような実証主義的パラダイムに属さない研究の成果を論じ､評価する際に､実証主義に従う研究者の行動規範や研究の評価基準を適用することはできない｡本稿では､ナラテイブ型の研究を理解し､論じるために研究者に必要とされる態度と､ナラテイブ型の研究の評価基準について提案を行う｡