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ABSTRACT Natural cavities are monopolizable resources used as nest sites across many species exhibiting exclusive male care. However, our understanding of how the availability of this type of reproductive site influences male–male competition and the foraging costs associated with parental care is limited and based on studies of fish. The harvestman Magnispina neptunus offers the opportunity to explore these questions in invertebrates because males defend natural cavities used as oviposition sites and provide exclusive parental care. We hypothesized that low nest availability would increase male–male competition and the foraging costs of egg attendance. To test this hypothesis, we collected observational data in the field and conducted a laboratory experiment with two groups, low and high nest availability. Field data indicate natural cavity scarcity, as only 50% of the males were nest holders. Larger males were more likely to hold nests in the field, but body size did not predict nest ownership in the laboratory. In the field, nests with openings smaller than average were equally occupied by small and large males, while nests with openings larger than average were occupied almost exclusively by large males. The nest opening in the laboratory experiment was adjusted to be equal to the average found in the field, which may have increased nest defensibility, regardless of male size. Thus, prior residency may outweigh body size in determining nest possession. Because nest owners seem to have an advantage over intruders, the costs of abandoning a nest are likely high. This may explain why the frequency of nest takeovers and foraging outside the nests did not differ between experimental groups. In conclusion, although underexplored in empirical studies, external factors, such as the opening size of cavities defended by males of many species with resource‐defense mating systems, may play a key role in the defensibility of nest sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aggressive interactions can strongly influence an animal's performance in subsequent contests. Winners of aggressive contests are more likely to win successive contests and losers are more likely to lose successive contests. Such winner and loser effects can significantly influence an animal's dominance status, ability to acquire resources and reproductive success. Thus, quantifying the magnitudes of winner and loser effects across taxa is important for our understanding of hierarchy formation, life history trade-offs and reproductive tactics in different species. Furthermore, it is unclear whether the magnitude of winner effects differ from that of loser effects. Finally, experimenters often employ one of two distinct methods for quantifying the strength of winner and loser effects: self-selection and random assignment. Due to selection bias, it is possible that self-selection protocols overestimate the magnitude of winner and loser effects. We therefore systematically searched the literature to conduct a comprehensive meta-analysis of winner and loser effects. We analysed a total of 168 effect sizes from arachnids, crustaceans, fishes, insects, mammals and reptiles. We found that prior winners tend to win approximately two-thirds of their subsequent fights, while prior losers tend to lose approximately two-thirds of their subsequent fights. While we did not find that studies using self-selection generated effect size estimates that significantly differed from random assignment protocols, future studies should still avoid self-selection protocols. Overall, our study highlights the ubiquity of winner and loser effects across the animal kingdom and suggests several avenues for future research to unravel the evolutionary origins and mechanistic underpinnings of such experience effects. • Across taxa, winning increases the odds of winning subsequent fights. • Across taxa, losing increases the odds of losing subsequent fights. • We found no evidence that winner effects differed in magnitude from loser effects. • Self-selection generates similar effect sizes as random assignment protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new genus and species of chernetid pseudoscorpion, Alinnaechernes itororoi n. sp., is described from the Brazilian Cerrado domain, southeast region, found under the bark of Copaifera langsdorffii Des. (Fabaceae). Alinnaechernes n. gen. can be distinguished from other genera by: (1) the presence of a bilobed protuberance on the prolateral margin of the pedipalpal chela of males, with a small distal tooth on each lobe; (2) the spermathecae consist of two small, elongated bulbous sacs that are broadly connected at the base; (3) trichobothrium et situated subdistally, it distal of et, est at same level as ist, ib slightly distal to eb and at same level as esb, ist at same level as esb. The description of this new genus represents an important contribution to the knowledge of the pseudoscorpion fauna of the Brazilian savanna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of what we know about terrestrial life during the Carboniferous Period comes from Middle Pennsylvanian (~315–307 Mya) Coal Measures deposited in low-lying wetland environments1–5. We know relatively little about terrestrial ecosystems from the Early Pennsylvanian, which was a critical interval for the diversification of insects, arachnids, tetrapods, and seed plants6–10. Here we report a diverse Early Pennsylvanian trace and body fossil Lagerstätte (~320–318 Mya) from the Wamsutta Formation of eastern North America, distinct from coal-bearing deposits, preserved in clastic substrates within basin margin conglomerates. The exceptionally preserved trace fossils and body fossils document a range of vertebrates, invertebrates and plant taxa (n = 131), with 83 distinct foliage morphotypes. Plant-insect interactions include what may be the earliest evidence of insect oviposition. This site expands our knowledge of early terrestrial ecosystems and organismal interactions and provides ground truth for future phylogenetic reconstructions of key plant, arthropod, and vertebrate groups. Our knowledge of life in the Carboniferous Period is largely restricted to low-lying wetlands dated to 315–310 million years ago. Here, the authors present an older Lagerstätte on an alluvial fan 320–318 million years ago, preserving a diverse ecosystem of vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and plant-insect interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some pseudoscorpions (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpions) occur in seashore habitats where they are typically found under driftwood or rocks. Here we review the genus Nipponogarypus Morikawa, 1955 from littoral habitats in Japan and South Korea and describe a new species, Nipponogarypus seosanensis sp. nov., from the Korean Peninsula. We also elevate two former subspecies to species rank: N. enoshimaensis enoshimaensis Morikawa, 1960 = N. enoshimaensis Morikawa, 1955, and N. enoshimaensis okinoerabensis Morikawa, 1960 = N. okinoerabensis Morikawa, 1960, stat. nov. The distribution of all Nipponogarypus species is mapped, and an identification key for the species is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local microgeographic sites subdivided by sharp ecological and climatic contrasts are important platforms for measuring biodiversity patterns and inferring the possible effect of climatic and ecological variables on species distributions and habitat use. Here, we report results from 24 months (September 2019–August 2021) of continuous pitfall trapping collection in Lower Nahal Keziv, Western Upper Galilee, Israel ("Evolution Canyon" II (hereafter—EC II)). This site receives an average annual rainfall of 784 mm and contains two slopes that differ markedly by solar radiation and plant formation. The first is the south-facing slope (SFS), which is characterized as a semiarid garrigue and open grassland. The second is the contrasting north-facing slope (NFS), which is characterized by a more humid East Mediterranean forest. The slopes are separated by a narrow valley bottom (VB). Analysis of ca. 1750 arachnid specimens, collected from 70 pitfall traps along the slopes and valley, indicates significantly different arachnid assemblages between the NFS and SFS, likely due to the differences in solar radiation that affect plant-cover percentage, which in turn affects the arachnid assemblage composition. In addition to 98 arachnid taxa collected and identified to species and morphospecies level, this study resulted in the discovery of two species new to science, which are described as part of this publication (100 arachnid species and 11 additional taxa that were not identified to species, a total of 111 taxa). Our study, moreover, contributes new ecological data on the spatial and temporal distribution of arachnids, and therefore attests to the importance of year-round sampling in an understudied region. Overall, our study enables a better understanding of arachnid diversity and their distributions and serves as a reference for future research aimed at testing the effect of climate change and other environmental factors that influence arachnid assemblages in natural habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing depletion of the diversity of Pachylinae, the largest subfamily within Gonyleptidae, is progressing. The unranked clade DRMN continues to expand, now incorporating two additional genera – Gyndoides Mello-Leitão, 1927, and Sertaneja Saraiva, Hara & DaSilva, 2021 – previously classified under Pachylinae. Through a cladistic analysis, with an expansion of the morphological dataset used in previous works, our research reveals that both Gyndoides and Sertaneja are separately placed within DRMN. As DRMN is not a formal Linnean taxon, both genera are herein called Gonyleptidae incertae sedis to avoid the establishment of new monogeneric subfamilies. A new species of Gyndoides is described from the state of Paraná, marking the first record for the genus from this state. The other two species, from Santa Catarina state, are herein redescribed, and an emended diagnosis is provided for the genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate whether Buthus martensii karsch (Scorpiones), Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans L. Koch (Scolopendra) and Gekko gecko Linnaeus (Gekko) could ameliorate the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and inhibit lung cancer growth and metastasis by regulating phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin/hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α) signaling pathway. Methods: Male C57BL/6J mice were inoculated with luciferase labeled LL/2-luc-M38 cell suspension to develop lung cancer models, with rapamycin and cyclophosphamide as positive controls. Carboxy methyl cellulose solutions of Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko were administered intragastrically as 0.33, 0.33, and 0.83 g/kg, respectively once daily for 21 days. Fluorescent expression were detected every 7 days after inoculation, and tumor growth curves were plotted. Immunohistochemistry was performed to determine CD31 and HIF-1α expressions in tumor tissue and microvessel density (MVD) was analyzed. Western blot was performed to detect the expression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling pathway-related proteins. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to detect serum basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in mice. Results: Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko prolonged the survival time and inhibited lung cancer metastasis and expression of HIF-1α (all P<0.01). Moreover, Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT and ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) (P<0.05 or P<0.01). In addition, they also decreased the expression of CD31, MVD, bFGF, TGF-β1 and VEGF compared with the model group (P<0.05 or P<0.01). Conclusion: Scorpiones, Scolopendra and Gekko all showed beneficial effects on lung cancer by ameliorating the hypoxic tumor microenvironment via PI3K/AKT/mTOR/HIF-1α signaling pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spun silk is found only in arthropods, where it plays critical roles in feeding, protection, and reproduction. It has evolved repeatedly within the arthropods, providing an opportunity for comparative analyses to reveal the mechanisms driving convergent evolution within this taxon. Silk in crustaceans has received much less attention than silk in arachnids and insects but may have unique and useful properties. We combine data on the morphology of silk and silk systems with ancestral state reconstruction and find that silk has likely evolved convergently at least six times within Crustacea. We also break down the components of crustacean silk as a composite trait by discussing the silk properties, the silk production systems, and the silk genes. We find that amphipod and tanaid silks are similar to silkworm and spider silks but have their own unique silk system morphology. Much remains unknown about the origins and diversification of silk in crustaceans; we propose that the molecular investigation of silk genes and systems will provide a path forward. By investigating the evolution of silk production in crustaceans, we may discover insights into predispositions for silk production in arthropods and valuable substrates for biomaterial research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we investigate how spiders can be used to assess the effectiveness of restoring mesic grasslands on former urban lawns. We compile and analyze a comprehensive dataset, including both past and current data, focusing on the Aachen region. By systematically examining this data, we identify various indicators using different analytical methods. This approach allows us to distinguish distinct species communities, making them useful as diagnostic tools at various stages of habitat development. Additionally, we identify further parameters that are essential for evaluating meadow restoration in urban settings. We highlight the crucial importance of understanding the local species repertoire, as this knowledge is vital for setting realistic benchmarks for restoration projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three species of spiders (Araneae), Altella aussereri Thaler, 1990, Mimetus laevigatus (Keyserling, 1863), and Trichoncyboides simoni (Lessert, 1904), are reported from Slovakia for the first time. These new records originate from southern Slovakia. The record of A. aussereri provides new data on the distribution and natural history of this range-restricted species of very high conservation value. The records of M. laevigatus and T. simoni in Slovakia extend their known distribution in Central Europe. Characteristic features, pictures of the habitus, copulatory organs, and habitats are presented.

The chelicerate body plan is distinguished from other arthropod groups by its division of segments into 2 tagmata: the anterior prosoma ("cephalothorax") and the posterior opisthosoma ("abdomen"). Little is understood about the genetic mechanisms that establish the prosomal-opisthosomal (PO) boundary. To discover these mechanisms, we created high-quality genomic resources for the large-bodied spider Aphonopelma hentzi. We sequenced specific territories along the antero-posterior axis of developing embryos and applied differential gene expression analyses to identify putative regulators of regional identity. After bioinformatic screening for candidate genes that were consistently highly expressed in only 1 tagma (either the prosoma or the opisthosoma), we validated the function of highly ranked candidates in the tractable spider model Parasteatoda tepidariorum. Here, we show that an arthropod homolog of the Iroquois complex of homeobox genes is required for proper formation of the boundary between arachnid tagmata. The function of this homolog had not been previously characterized, because it was lost in the common ancestor of Pancrustacea, precluding its investigation in well-studied insect model organisms. Knockdown of the spider copy of this gene, which we designate as waist-less, in P. tepidariorum resulted in embryos with defects in the PO boundary, incurring discontinuous spider germ bands. We show that waist-less is required for proper specification of the segments that span the prosoma-opisthosoma boundary, which in adult spiders corresponds to the narrowed pedicel. Our results demonstrate the requirement of an ancient, taxon-restricted paralog for the establishment of the tagmatic boundary that defines Chelicerata. The chelicerate body plan is unique among arthropods because segments are divided into two tagmata – cephalothorax and abdomen – but the mechanisms that establish the boundary between them remains unclear. Here, the authors identify a new gene named waist-less that is required for patterning the spider body plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three new species, Gint sahil sp. n. from Somaliland and Gint abshiri sp. n. and G. derbiae sp. n. from Ethiopia are described and compared with other species of the genus. Additional information is provided on the taxonomy and distribution of the genus Gint, fully complemented with color photos of specimens of the new species, as well as of their habitats. Furthermore, alongside the analyses of external morphology and hemispermatophores, we have provided description of the karyotype of G. abshiri sp. n. This species exhibits karyotype with 2n=27. Included is distribution map and a key for the genus Gint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand how global warming will impact biodiversity, we need to pay attention to those species with higher vulnerability. However, to assess vulnerability, we also need to consider the thermoregulatory mechanisms, body size, and thermal tolerance of species. Studies addressing thermal tolerance on small ectotherms have mostly focused on insects, while other arthropods, such as arachnids remain understudied. Here, we quantified the physiological thermal sensitivity of the pseudoscorpion Dactylochelifer silvestris using a respirometry setup with a ramping temperature increase. Overall, we found that D. silvestris has a much lower metabolic rate than other organisms of similar size. As expected, metabolic rate increased with body size, with adults having larger metabolic rates, but the overall metabolic scaling exponent was low. Both the temperature at which metabolism peaked and the critical thermal maxima were high (>44°C) and comparable to those of other arachnids. The activation energy, which characterizes the rising portion of the thermal sensitivity curve, was 0.66 eV, consistent with predictions for insects and other taxa in general. Heat tolerances and activation energy did not differ across life stages. We conclude that D. silvestris has low metabolic rates and a high thermal tolerance, which would likely influence how all stages and sexes of this species could endure climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scorpions, a seemingly primitive, stinging arthropod taxa, are known to exhibit marked diversity in their venom components. These venoms are known for their human pathology, but they are also important as models for therapeutic and drug development applications. In this study, we report a high-quality genome assembly and annotation of the striped bark scorpion, Centruroides vittatus , created with several shotgun libraries. The final assembly is 760 Mb in size, with a BUSCO score of 97.8%, a 30.85% GC, and an N50 of 2.35 Mb. We estimated 36,189 proteins with 37.32% assigned to Gene Ontology (GO) terms in our GO annotation analysis. We mapped venom toxin genes to 18 contigs and 2 scaffolds. We were also able to identify expression differences between venom gland (telson) and body tissue (carapace) with 19 sodium toxin and 14 potassium toxin genes to 18 contigs and 2 scaffolds. This assembly, along with our transcriptomic data, provides further data to investigate scorpion venom genomics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to storage mite (SM) and house dust mite (HDM) allergens is a risk factor for sensitization and asthma development; however, the related immune responses and their pathology have not been fully investigated. The HDMs Dermatophagoides farinae and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus and SM Tyrophagus putrescentiae are potent allergens that induce asthma. Most SM-related studies have focused on the allergic reactions of individuals by measuring their immunoglobulin (Ig)E expression. Considering the limited research on this topic, the present study aims to investigate the differences in the immune responses induced by HDMs and SMs and histologically analyze lung tissues in a mouse asthma model to understand the differential effects of HDM and SM. The results revealed that all mite species induced airway inflammation. Mice challenged with T. putrescentiae had the highest airway resistance and total cell, eosinophil, and neutrophil counts in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The SM-sensitized groups showed more severe lesions and mucus hypersecretions than the HDM-sensitized groups. Although the degree of HDM and SM exposure was the same, the damage to the respiratory lung tissue was more severe in SM-exposed mice, which resulted in excessive mucin secretion and increased fibrosis. Furthermore, these findings suggest that SM sensitization induces a more significant hypersensitivity response in mucosal immunity than HDM sensitization in asthma models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scorpions are predatory arachnids whose venomous sting primarily affects people in tropical and subtropical regions. Most scorpion stings can only cause localized pain without severe envenomation. Less than one-third of the stings cause systemic envenoming and possibly lead to death. About 350,000 scorpion stings in Northern Africa are recorded yearly, resulting in about 810 deaths. In Eastern/Southern Africa, there are about 79,000 stings recorded yearly, resulting in 245 deaths. Farmers and those living in poverty-stricken areas are among the most vulnerable to getting stung by scorpions. However, compared to adults, children are at greater risk of severe envenomation. Scorpion venom is made up of complex mixtures dominated by peptides and proteins that confer its potency and toxicity. These venom toxins have intra- and interspecies variations associated with the scorpion's habitat, sex, diet, and age. These variations alter the activity of antivenoms used to treat scorpion sting envenomation. Thus, the study of the proteome composition of medically important scorpion venoms needs to be scaled up along their geographical distribution and contributions to envenomation in Southern and Northern Africa. This will help the production of safer, more effective, and broad-spectrum antivenoms within these regions. Here, we review the clinical implications of scorpion sting envenomation in Southern and Northern Africa. We further highlight the compositions of scorpion venoms and tools used in scorpion venomics. We discuss current antivenoms used against scorpion sting envenomation and suggestions for future production of better antivenoms or alternatives. Finally, we discuss the therapeutic properties of scorpion venom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sicariidae is a small family of cryptic and recluse spiders, with 178 species grouped into three genera: Hexophtalma, Loxosceles and Sicarius. Only the last two occur in Brazil, where 29 species are recorded, with a greater number of records in the Southeast and South regions. To date, there is no regionalized study of the distribution of these spiders in the Northeast of Brazil. We presented more than four decades of data on the distribution of sicariid spiders in the state of Bahia. Our research aimed to identify and evaluate the distribution of sicariid species in this region, characterizing them in their biomes and phytophysiognomies. Methods: Data covers a period from 1983 to 2024, obtained from articles describing species recorded in Bahia and from three scientific collections from Brazilian institutions: Universidade Federal da Bahia (MHNBA); Instituto Butantan (IBSP); Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG). Maps were produced using the QGIS 3.34.1 software, based on geographic coordinates obtained from the original literature, when provided. Species without information on geographic coordinates were georeferenced using the SpeciesLink (geoLoc tool) for the municipalities. Biomes were consulted on the georeference Brazilian institute website and the phytophysiognomies were ignored when not specified in the data of collections or original literature. Results: We confirmed 14 species of sicariid spiders in the state of Bahia, eight from the genus Loxosceles (i) and six from Sicarius. The species were recorded in 48 municipalities, located mainly in the Caatinga biome. We recorded a distribution expansion of seven species: Loxosceles amazonica, L. chapadensis, L. karstica, L. similis, Sicarius cariri, S. ornatus and S. tropicus. There is a difference in species composition in the two regions separated by the São Francisco River, an important geographic barrier especially for small invertebrates. More than 75% of the species were registered in the east side and about 20% exclusively in the west side: L. boqueirao, L. cardosoi, L. carinhanha. This suggests the need for future studies to evaluate additional variables that determine community structure, especially considering their low vagility and reclusive behavior. Although Sicarius are found almost exclusively in the Caatinga, there are isolated records from Restinga and dry forest enclaves in the Cerrado domain and Atlantic Forest areas. This reinforces the possibility of them being able to adapt to slightly wetter environments erase colonize and survive in seasonally dry rainforest areas. Unlike Sicarius (i), Loxosceles (i) occupy a wide variety of habitats in natural, urban and domiciliary situations. Many of the records here such as for Loxosceles boqueirao, L. cardosoi, L. carinhanha, L. chapadensis, L. karstica and L. troglobia were obtained at caves or nearby areas, which appear to be attractive habitats for these nocturnal spiders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intraguild predation occurs when an organism preys on a competitor. This ecological interaction can have considerable consequences on the population dynamics of predators and indirectly affect their prey. In arachnids, it is a quite common phenomenon, but it has been poorly documented in the Neotropical region. Here, we present records of 16 species feeding on other 14 species of arachnids. The most common families that acted as predators were Buthidae (Scorpiones) and Salticidae (Araneae), while the most common prey were members of the families Araneidae and Ctenidae (Araneae). In our survey, Drake Bay, in Costa Rica, is overrepresented due to years of systematic observations by two of the coauthors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is an updated compilation of marine arthropod species reported from the coasts of Türkiye. As of the first half of 2024, 1886 arthropod species have been reported in the marine and brackish water environments of Türkiye. The class Malacostraca, having the highest number of species, is followed by Copepoda, Ostracoda, Arachnida, Pycnogonida, Thecostraca, Branchiopoda, and Insecta in terms of species diversity. Additionally, 83 alien species have been identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ants are among the most ecologically dominant animals in several terrestrial ecosystems. Some myrmecophile species use ants to transport themselves, a behavior known as phoresy or phoresis. Although phoresis is commonly reported in arachnids such as pseudoscorpions or acari, it is very unusual among spiders. Phoresis on ants has only been reported in one genus of spiders, the sac-spider Attacobius Mello-Leitão, 1925 and for only two Brazilian species. In this report, we describe this amazing behavior in Attacobius nigripes (Mello-Leitão, 1942) for the first time in association with a new host, the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex lobicornis Emery, 1888. This record extends the geographic distribution of this spider species to the southwest of Argentina, from the Chaco into the Monte Desert region. We briefly describe the riding behavior of spiders and discuss the myrmecophile association between this species and A. lobicornis. More studies are needed to understand the evolutionary context of this association. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harvester species exhibit a diverse array of defenses against predators. In this article, we briefly cover chemical defenses, coloration patterns, autotomy, aggregations, freezing behavior, bobbing, body vibration, and the production of sounds that might be used to avoid predators' attacks. Those defenses are not present in all harvester species and may not deter all kinds of predators. We discuss how prey-predator interaction may shape the evolution of defenses. Here we focus on studies that have been done after 2007, and we aim to give a general idea of the knowledge about prey-predator interactions in Opiliones to date, especially to the general public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in higher‐level invertebrate phylogeny have leveraged shared features of genomic architecture to resolve contentious nodes across the tree of life. Yet, the interordinal relationships within Chelicerata have remained recalcitrant given competing topologies in recent molecular analyses. As such, relationships between topologically unstable orders remain supported primarily by morphological cladistic analyses. Solifugae, one such unstable chelicerate order, has long been thought to be the sister group of Pseudoscorpiones, forming the clade Haplocnemata, on the basis of eight putative morphological synapomorphies. The discovery, however, of a shared whole genome duplication placing Pseudoscorpiones in Arachnopulmonata provides the opportunity for a simple litmus test evaluating the validity of Haplocnemata. Here, we present the first developmental transcriptome of a solifuge (Titanopuga salinarum) and survey copy numbers of the homeobox genes for evidence of systemic duplication. We find that over 70% of the identified homeobox genes in T. salinarum are retained in a single copy, while representatives of the arachnopulmonates retain orthologs of those genes as two or more copies. Our results refute the placement of Solifugae in Haplocnemata. Subsequent reevaluation of putative interordinal morphological synapomorphies among chelicerates reveals a high incidence of homoplasy, reversals, and inaccurate coding within Haplocnemata and other small clades, as well as Arachnida more broadly, suggesting existing morphological character matrices are insufficient to resolve chelicerate phylogeny. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although scorpions have comparatively low regenerative potential, legs and pedipalps are able to regenerate some structures in an often incomplete manner. The most intriguing scorpion appendages are the ventrally located pectines. These organs are equipped with numerous sensilla that scan the substrate for mechanosensory- and chemosensory cues. Due to their ventral position and frequent substrate contact, pectines are vulnerable to traumatic injuries. Pecten malformations have been hypothesized to be the result of incomplete regeneration. To investigate their regeneration capabilities, the pectines of postembryonic stages of Euscorpius italicus (Herbst, 1800) were amputated before the second moult at three different positions. Data on intermoult periods and the number of pectinal teeth were gathered for approximately 2.5 years. The regeneration process on exuviae of up to six moulting events was documented by photographs and confocal laser-scanning microscopy. Regardless of the amputation site, no evidence for regenerative capabilities of pectines in E. italicus could be reported. Thus, incomplete regenerations mentioned in the literature are likely the result of simple wound healing. Depending on habitat complexity, substrate contact time of the pectines seem to differ, which might be interpreted as a trade-off between highest sensory input and the avoidance of traumatic injury of the pectines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intricate interplay between predators and prey has long fascinated ecologists, with bats and their diverse prey offering insight into co‐evolutionary dynamics. While bats have evolved sophisticated strategies for prey capture, they also face predation pressure. Among their predators, spiders stand out for their diversity of predatory tactics, ranging from hunting assaults and web ensnarement to the deployment of venom. Yet, bat predation records by spiders are mostly from tropical regions, and cases remain notably scarce in temperate regions. Here, we report four new incidences of bat predation and mortality by spiders and their webs in Europe. Our observations include detailed photograph and video documentation of the first record of a spider capturing and consuming a bat pup in Spain, as well as accounts of bats entangled in spider webs on a building and inside bat boxes in the United Kingdom. These findings shed light on understudied predator–prey dynamics, offering valuable insights into spider predation on bats in European ecosystems. Our study emphasises the importance of continued research to improve our understanding of ecological interactions between these elusive and primarily nocturnal taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic transport of plants, food, and other materials has been a route of dispersal for many arthropods and some tropical species have inadvertently been introduced to European hothouses where they have established reproducing populations. This study reports the first records of the introduction of the arachnid order Schizomida to Danish hothouses: namely Stenochrus portoricensis as well as a new species of Bamazomus (Schizomida: Hubbardiidae). The latter, Bamazomus serendipitus sp. n. is described. Possible origins of introductions for both species are addressed, based on comparison of newly generated and publicly available DNA barcodes, history of introduction of plants, and for B. serendipitus sp. n. also morphological similarity to other Bamazomus species. Stenochrus portoricensis has likely been introduced from Costa Rica and B. serendipitus sp. n. is suggested to originate from Southeast Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The arachnid fauna of the Maltese Islands has not yet been adequately investigated. In the present work, from a total of 117 species sampled, 36 taxa represent newly recorded spider species (Araneae) for Malta, with an additional new record of a harvestman (Opiliones). These new records include three new spider families and one new harvestman family for the Maltese archipelago: Anyphaenidae Bertkau, 1878, Mimetidae Simon, 1881, Oxyopidae Thorell, 1869 and Sclerosomatidae Simon, 1879; as well as two species which are recorded from Europe for the first time: Acartauchenius insigniceps (Simon, 1894) and Zelotes poecilochroaeformis Denis, 1937. Ecological, distributional, biogeographical and taxonomic notes are provided for the newly recorded species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Specimens of the genus Phalangium Linnaeus, 1758 (Phalangiidae Latreille, 1802) are reported from northern Iraq and were identified as Phalangium punctipes (L. Koch, 1878). These represent the first record of both, genus and species, for the Iraqi Opiliones fauna. The characteristic features of the species and illustrations of their habitat are presented. This record increases the number of known Opiliones in Iraq to six species, which is a very low number compared to the Opiliones checklists from two nearby countries, namely Iran with 28 species and Türkiye with 89 species and five subspecies. Nineteen species and two subspecies records from the Türkiye checklist are considered misidentifications and therefore omitted in our revised checklist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Understanding the historical biogeography of the Earth's oldest terrestrial lineages provides insights into lineage diversification in relation to plate tectonics, climate change and biome shifts at maximum timescales. We investigate the biogeography of an ancient arachnid family, dragon pseudoscorpions, which are found today in mesic (mostly temperate) forests on all continents except Antarctica and Europe, have potential origins on Pangea and comprise species with extremely limited dispersal capacities. We evaluate the respective role of continental vicariance (abiotic) and biome shifts (biotic) deep in time and unravel the evolutionary history of this ancient group. Location: Global. Taxon: Pseudotyrannochthoniidae (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones). Methods: Five loci were sequenced for 75 Pseudotyrannochthoniidae samples collected across the globe. A matrix was compiled comprising 106 terminals and ~8800 bp, and phylogenetic analyses were performed to uncover relationships. Divergence time and ancestral range estimation analyses were used to reconstruct historical biogeography. Results: Pseudotyrannochthoniidae was monophyletic with high support but relationships among genera did not reflect current taxonomy and instead showed geographical structuring. Pseudotyrannochthoniidae originated in East Asia during the Middle Triassic and began diversifying in the Early Cretaceous. Main Conclusions: Diversity and distributional patterns of dragon pseudoscorpions can be explained by the interplay of continental vicariance through Pangaean breakup, and biome shifts via the spread of temperate habitats in the Cretaceous and their ongoing distributional fluctuations. Pseudotyrannochthoniidae diversification began in the Early Cretaceous as they dispersed with temperate forests across the Northern Hemisphere. Cretaceous vicariance, followed by widespread Holarctic extinction in the Late Tertiary–Quaternary, created their disjunct distribution at northern latitudes. Northern and Southern Hemisphere lineages diverged as Gondwana and Laurasia rifted, and Gondwanan breakup resulted in Afrotropical/Indomalayan and Austral clades. Austral lineages spread with temperate forests, however, cooling caused their disappearance from Antarctica and led to disjunct distributions at low latitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scorpion stings are the major public health problem related to arthropods in tropical and subtropical areas of Iran. The study aimed to determine the species diversity and geographical distribution of scorpions in southern regions of Kerman province, Iran. The descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out from March 2019 to November 2021 in the south of Kerman province. The specimens were collected by rock rolling method using long forceps during the day and UV light during the night. The specimens were put in containers containing 80% ethanol, transported to the laboratory, identified using valid taxonomic keys, and studied their sexes. A total of 126 scorpions were collected from 2 families, 7 genera, and 10 species including Hemiscorpius acanthocercus (2.2%), H. enischnochela (0.4%), Androctonus crassicauda (56.1%), Mesobuthus kirmanensis (29%), Odontobuthus baluchicus (3.5%), Hottentotta navidpouri (2.2%), Ho. sistanensis (2.2%), Orthochirus hormozganensis (1.3%), O. kucerai (0.9%) and Sassanidotus gracilis (1.3%). Mesobuthus kirmanensis were reported as dominant species. H. navidpouri, H. sistanensis, O. baluchicus, and O. hormozganensis are reported for the first time from Kerman province. Androctonus crassicauda, H. acanthocercus and H. enischnochela are known as dangerous species and could enhance the potential risk of scorpion stings deaths, especially in children. The fauna and geographical distribution of scorpions in the southeast of Iran showed the presence of suitable habitats for scorpions and can be a warning to the health care system. Identification of dangerous species and their range of distribution can be comprehensive and valuable guides to reducing the exposure of scorpions in high-risk areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural and allergenic characterization of mite profilins has not been previously pursued to a similar extent as plant profilins. Here, we describe structures of profilins originating from Tyrophagus putrescentiae (registered allergen Tyr p 36.0101) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (here termed Der p profilin), which are the first structures of profilins from Arachnida. Additionally, the thermal stabilities of mite and plant profilins are compared, suggesting that the high number of cysteine residues in mite profilins may play a role in their increased stability. We also examine the cross-reactivity of plant and mite profilins as well as investigate the relevance of these profilins in mite inhalant allergy. Despite their high structural similarity to other profilins, mite profilins have low sequence identity with plant and human profilins. Subsequently, these mite profilins most likely do not display cross-reactivity with plant profilins. At the same time the profilins have highly conserved poly(l-proline) and actin binding sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Simple Summary: Water mites are a significant population of Arachnida in aquatic ecosystems, with over 7500 species described worldwide. The genus Unionicola, belonging to the family Unionicolidae, is known for its parasitic behavior, often consuming the mucus and tissue of its molluscan hosts. While most species in this genus parasitize mussels, some have been found in gastropods. In our study, we discovered water mites infesting two species of gastropods: Filopaludina sumatrensis polygramma and F. martensi martensi. Through a comparison with known species, we identified this mite as a new species within the genus Unionicola, subgenus Polyatax, and named it "Unionicola (Polyatax) kasetbangkhenensis sp. nov.". Two species of gastropods, Filopaludina sumatrensis polygramma and F. martensi martensi, were found infested with water mites of the genus Unionicola in Bangkok and Nonthaburi provinces, Thailand. Morphological studies on these water mites, based on the characteristics of their genital acetabular and female genital fields, identified them as a new member of subgenus Polyatax. Unionicola (Polyatax) kasetbangkhenensis sp. nov. was named after the first location where this parasitic water mite was discovered. This species is distinguished from others by the pattern of their female genital field, with their anterior acetabular plates each bearing two acetabula and a short thick spine on the inner margin. Additionally, it differs from other species by the structure of the spines in its pedipalps and legs, as well as in the shapes of its coxal plates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question, when ants first appeared, remains unanswered. However, images of ants in Burmese amber show that some extinct types existed back then. By the mid-Cenozoic, most fossil ants could be assigned to extant genera. The present work examines ancient associations between ants and other organisms based on fossils in amber. Topics include fungal associates, interactions with higher plants, associations between ants and arachnids, ants bringing food to the colony, insect parasites and predators, nematode parasites, ants visiting flowers, ant mimics and gut microbes in ants. All specimens included in the present work are listed with the amber source, present location, published accounts and accession numbers of those in the Poinar amber collection (PAC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Balkan wall lizard (Podarcis tauricus) is a small-sized ground-dwelling species distributed in southeastern Europe and northwestern Anatolia. Although some insights into its diet and food preferences were published, there is still a lack of knowledge of its feeding ecology in parts of its range, especially in Bulgaria. Our results showed that the trophic spectrum of P. tauricus in NW Bulgaria consists of insects and arachnids. At a lower taxonomic level, two orders - Hymenoptera (incl. Formicidae) (24.63%) and Heteroptera (23.19%) have almost equal participation and together represent nearly 50% of the diet, while among other groups, only Orthoptera (13.04%) and Araneae (11.59%) have a significant presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Failure to achieve a subarachnoid block, even after a second attempt, and the inability to activate epidural analgesia, despite a properly placed catheter, can be both frustrating and perplexing. This case presents a situation where these incidents occurred, and two well-conducted attempts at a subarachnoid block and a properly placed epidural catheter block were unable to produce surgical anesthesia. Case Presentation: A 55-year-old female, classified as American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade II, was scheduled for a total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. After adequate pre-operative preparation, an epidural catheter was inserted on the morning of surgery, followed by a subarachnoid block with all the proper precautions, which completely failed. After waiting for 10 minutes, the epidural block was activated with a local anesthetic mixture. To our surprise, it also did not produce any desirable effect, so the subarachnoid block was repeated, which again failed to produce any clinical block. Consequently, the surgery had to be conducted under balanced general anesthesia. Recalling previous experience and evidence, a history of scorpion bites was elicited. The patient had a history of multiple encounters (five) and was from a geographical area known to be endemic for scorpions. Conclusions: This case represents another instance of developing resistance to the effects of local anesthetics after exposure to scorpion venom. We believe there is a strong correlation between previous scorpion bites, the number of bites, and the duration between the most recent bite and the development of resistance to local anesthetic agents (LAAs). From a detailed search, it was evident that enough clinical evidence has emerged to irrefutably support this proposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olea europaea L. 1753, is one of the oldest and most distinctive trees in the Mediterranean region. Its nutritional, social, cultural, and economic value is very important for populations in arid regions, where it is widely distributed. A sign of a sustainable environment in many agricultural regions is the existence of a wide variety and abundance of arthropod groups. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the diversity of arthropods subservientin in olive agro-systems in the arid region by using several sampling techniques, namely classic sight hunting, visual inspection, Barber pots, and yellow traps. The inventory is carried out over a period of 5 months, from February to June 2023, in three stations in M’Sila (northeastern Algeria). Three classes of arthropods were found: Insecta, Arachnida, and Malacostraca. Captures were numerically dominated by Insecta, representing 96.88% of total captures. Arachnida and Malacostraca classes represented about 2.74 and 0.38%, respectively. During this research, a total of 1861 arthropod individuals were collected and identified into 83 species, 79 genera, 53 families, and 15 orders. The most abundant orders were: Diptera (42.56%), Hymenoptera (28.11%), and Coleoptera (7.32%). However, we found a significant difference in species composition according to habitat (P < 0.01). The species were determined, and the ecological indices were calculated (Shannon Value, Evenness values and Simpson reciprocal index). The dominant functional feeding groups were phytophages (41.91 %), predators (32.94%), and polyphages (22.14%). The arthropods included several olive pests such as Euphyllura olivina (Costa) (Hemiptera: Liviidae), Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), Prays oleae (Bernard) (Lepidoptera: Praydidae), Liothrips oleae Costa (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), and Oxycenus maxwelli (Keifer) (Arachnida: Eriophyidae). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Schizomids are one of the less-known arachnid groups in terms of their natural history and ecology. However, due to their remarkable short-range endemic distribution, they may be vulnerable to climate change and habitat loss. In Colombia, although the national IUCN red list of threatened invertebrates has categorized species of schizomids as vulnerable (VU), this assessment was based on expert criteria. Therefore, information about the ecology of schizomids is critical for a more accurate reassessment of their conservation status. In this study, we describe the habitat of two species of Surazomus in endangered Andean tropical forests of Colombia after a sampling effort of 15.12 m2 (n = 168 soil samples) and the collection of 6999 soil fauna individuals from the samples. We analyzed soil fauna communities associated with schizomids as well as different forest and environmental variables from permanent plots installed a decade ago in the Sabana de Bogotá region. Detailed information on climate, plant communities, and forest structure was obtained from these plots. Thus, we provide the first comprehensive habitat description of schizomids including both above- and belowground compartments. We found that each species lives in specific habitats with different soil fauna communities, suggesting a potential association between geographical fidelity and habitat conditions. This result could indicate that schizomids are highly sensitive to dramatic environmental changes, such as those experienced in the Andean region of Colombia. Implications for insect conservation: Our study is valuable for the future reassessment of the conservation status of schizomids in the country, particularly considering that the previous categorization was based on expert criteria. Since habitat conditions and soil fauna communities are species-specific, schizomids could be disproportionately vulnerable to climate change and human disturbances in the Colombian Andes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Burmese amber preserves a diverse assemblage of Cretaceous arachnids, and among pseudoscorpions (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones), ten species in five families have already been named. Here, we describe a new fossil species from Burmese amber in the pseudoscorpion family Hyidae, providing detailed measurements, photographs and 3D-models from synchrotron scanning. Based on morphology, the new fossil, Hya fynni sp. nov. is placed in the genus Hya, and is nearly identical to extant species in the genus, except for the position of trichobothrium est on the pedipalpal chela, thereby indicating extreme morphological stasis in this invertebrate lineage over the last 99 million years. Hya fynni represents the first described fossil species in Hyidae, and the third described Burmese fossil in the superfamily Neobisioidea. It also joins the garypinid, Amblyolpium burmiticum, in representing the oldest fossil records for extant pseudoscorpion genera. Considering proposed divergence dates, the newly described fossil species bolsters a Gondwanan origin for Hyidae, and provides evidence for the "Late Jurassic Rifting" hypothesis for the Burma Terrane, in which this landmass rifted from Gondwana in the Late Jurassic and collided with Eurasia by the Cretaceous/Eocene. Like Hya species today, H. fynni likely inhabited humicolous microhabitats in tropical forests on the Burma Terrane, supporting ecological niche stasis for this family since the Mesozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spiders, as predatory arthropods, play essential roles in ecosystem equilibrium and serve as bioindicators. To contribute to the understanding of spider diversity in northeast Algeria (Annaba province), a survey of spider fauna was conducted in both forest and urban sites over two consecutive years using the "hand collecting" method. A total of 879 adult spiders (681 females and 198 males) were identified, representing 25 families and 67 species. The Salticid Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826) was the most abundant species, with 127 specimens collected. The most abundant families were Salticidae and Araneidae, with counts of 171 and 139 individuals, respectively. The Shannon-Weaver index varied from 2.17 to 3.68 bits across the different sites, while evenness values ranged from 0.60 to 0.75. This study significantly expanded the known spider species in Annaba province from 96 to 138.

One year of pitfall sampling in (A) a narrow strip of vegetation (junipers, Rosa sp., small pines) close to a river bank, (B) a cultivated medium humid meadow and (C) a humid deciduous forest (Alnus) with some grass on the ground collected a total of 25, 48 and 32 species, respectively (in total 67 species). Shannon indices of general diversity (ln e) were 1.8, 2.1 and 3.1, respectively. The three sites shared only 9 species, 57% of all species were found in only one locality. Similarity indices were low, especially between loc. A and C. Linyphiidae and Lycosidae were dominant. The latter were scarce in loc. B and C but common at loc. A (Pardosa palustris and P. amentata together comprising 43.5% of total) and net building species more scarce. The local distribution, co-existence, ecological and habitat preferences, seasonal activity and body size of some common species are briefly discussed. For some species, aspects of geographical distribution are discussed.

In June-August 1968 quantitative samples were taken on the ground in the relatively dark Loc.I and the more open Loc.II, in the moss cover from the upper green third (level A) and from the lower two thirds (level B), at Loc.I also in pure leaf litter. For some spider species spatial segregation (vertically and horizontally) is discussed. The A-layer at Loc.I was dominated by the fairly large Hilaira herniosa (33.1 %) and the medium sized Centromerus arcanus (10.3 %), the small sized Tapinocyba pallens was scarce (3.7 %). In total differences were less clear (17.3 - 22.1 %). T. pallens dominated (43.6 %) in the litter samples, the other two were more scarce. T. pallens was scarce at Loc.II (in total 1.1 %). Here the light coloured Diplocentria rectangulata dominated at the B-level (34.4 %), and the dark pigmented Minyriolus pusillus dominated at the A-level (21.5 %). The former was not found at Loc.I, the latter was scarce (totally absent from the litter samples). A small sweep net material from the two field layers indicates some faunal differences compared to the moss and litter.

Square samples were taken at intervals of 3 - 4 weeks (early spring 1972 - late summer 1973) in a heterogenous plant association dominated by Calluna vulgaris and several moss species (Loc.I), and in a homogenous, humid Sphagnum mat (Loc.II) with very sparse Calluna. Probably due to an unusually dry spring/early summer in 1972 the density of spiders decreased drastically towards mid-summer at Loc.I, especially the linyphiids and in particular their juveniles (less so at Loc.II). During late autumn/early winter a maximum of approximately 300 and 200 specimens per square meter was reached at Loc I and II, respectively. A total of 43 species were found; at Loc.I 42 species and at Loc. II 29 species. The Shannon indices of general diversity were 2.28 and 1.26, respectively. The sharing of 28 species gave a fairly high Soerensen index of similarity (0.79) but a rather low Renkonen index (0.30). At Loc.I the four most dominant species (range 12 - 21% ), Minyriolus pusillus, Erigonella hiemalis, Gongylidiellum latebricola and G. vivum, represented 59% of the total. At Loc.II the two most dominant species Robertus arundineti (45%) and Minyriolus pusillus (10%) represented 55% of the total. Pitfall traps emptied every 3 - 4 weeks added another 25 species to the list, including some abundant lycosids, and occasional sampling elsewhere in the area added 6 species. Phenological data are presented, and for some abundant species briefly discussed with notes on their habitat preferences and distribution.

Spiders have been collected by pitfall traps from two palsa bogs in the vicinity of Vardø in Finnmark, northern Norway. A total of 449 specimens belonging to 27 species from 4 families were caught. Two major ecological guilds were present, active vagrant forms, mainly consisting of lycosids, and the smaller net-building species represented by Linyphiidae and Hahniidae. Linyphiids made up 70% of the species but only 38% of the individuals, the lycosids being most abundant. Faunal differences between sites is probably caused by placement of the traps in different parts of the bogs. Seven species are new to Finnmark, although one has been reported before without being named. General faunistic and taxonomic comments are given on a few additional species: Agyneta mossica, recently reported from Norway, Agyneta sp., Arctosa alpigena lamperti, and Ozyptila arctica.

Three sites at 900 m a.s.l. in the sub-alpine mountain birch forest region and under different levels of human-influence were investigated. Site 1: An open birch forest with some scattered spruces, a rich bush and field layer and a rich moss cover; very little grazed. Site 2: Tree and bush layer removed, a rich field layer invaded by open area species and some ’culture indicators’; there was a rich moss cover. Site 3: Grazed; tree layer, bush layer and moss cover absent. Pitfall trapping (18 May – 18 Aug. 2000) in site 1 - 3 resulted in 48, 48 and 22 spider species (in total 64 species). In site 1 and 2 Pardosa riparia (C.L.Koch, 1833) and Alopecosa pulverulenta (Clerck, 1757) were dominating. P. sphagnicola (Dahl, 1908) was also fairly common in site 1, P. palustris and P. hyperborea (Thorell, 1872) in site 2. Site 3 was almost completely dominated by Pardosa palustris (73.2 %) and Erigone atra Blackwall, 1841 (18.2 %); present (absent elsewhere) were also some specimens of Oedothorax retusus (Westring, 1851) (4.6 %).

Conservation of wildlife depends upon people’s attitudes toward the various animal species. For example, conservation of invertebrates may be difficult due to fear and dislike of this animal group. We measured the prevalence of self-reported fear of spiders in a representative sample of the Norwegian population. Nine per cent answered ‘very much afraid’, 16 % ‘somewhat afraid’ and 75 % ‘not afraid’. The rate of self-reported fear (‘somewhat’ and ‘very much’) was higher among women (32 %) than among men (14 %). The elderly expressed a lower level of fear than did younger age groups, and respondents with more education reported less fear than did those with less education. Self-reported fear was at a lower level in rural than in urban areas, and higher in Central and Northern Norway than in other regions. These differences may be due to differences between groups in experience with spiders.

A checklist of 488 fall webworm Hyphantria cunea (Drury) natural enemies was compiled based on documentation in previous research across its world distribution, including 289 predators and 199 parasitoids. Predators in the checklist include 67 species from 17 families of Insecta, 1 species of Chilopoda, 183 species from 22 families of Arachnida, 1 species of Reptilia, 4 species from 2 families of Amphibia, 33 species from 18 families of Aves. In addition, the checklist includes fall webworm parasitoids from 18 families of Insecta. Among continents, 128 predators and 76 parasitoids were distributed in North America, 78 predators and 62 parasitoids in Asia, and 88 predators and 68 parasitoids in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]