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We have added support for realistic, microphysical, finite-temperature equations of state (EOS) and neutrino physics via a leakage scheme to IllinoisGRMHD, an open-source GRMHD code for dynamical spacetimes in the Einstein Toolkit. These new features are provided by two new, NRPy+-based codes: NRPyEOS, which performs highly efficient EOS table lookups and interpolations, and NRPyLeakage, which implements a new, AMR-capable neutrino leakage scheme in the Einstein Toolkit. We have performed a series of strenuous validation tests that demonstrate the robustness of these new codes, particularly on the Cartesian AMR grids provided by Carpet. Furthermore, we show results from fully dynamical GRMHD simulations of single unmagnetized neutron stars, and magnetized binary neutron star mergers. This new version of IllinoisGRMHD, as well as NRPyEOS and NRPyLeakage, is pedagogically documented in Jupyter notebooks and fully open source. The codes will be proposed for inclusion in an upcoming version of the Einstein Toolkit., Comment: 20 pages, 9 figures. v2 matches PRD version

On August 17, 2017, the LIGO/VIRGO collaboration detected the first gravitational wave signal coming from the merger of two neutron stars. This groundbreaking discovery, referred to as GW170817, revealed to us how heavy elements, such as gold and platinum, are synthesized through a mechanism known as rapid neutron capture (r-process). In order to fully understand these signals, we need to simulate the resulting accretion disk around a black hole, and its outflows. This task requires efficient computing codes that include general relativity magnetohydrodynamics (GRMHD), neutrino physics, and a model for matter at high densities. We present the implementation of a tabulated equation of state that takes care of matter at high densities and a neutrino leakage scheme that considers the impact of neutrinos into HARM3D, a GRMHD parallelized code. We also apply the tools to a magnetized torus.

Short $\gamma$-ray burst (sGRB) jets form in the aftermath of a neutron star merger, drill through disk winds and dynamical ejecta, and extend over four to five orders of magnitude in distance before breaking out of the ejecta. We present the first 3D general-relativistic magnetohydrodynamic sGRB simulations to span this enormous scale separation. They feature three possible outcomes: jet+cocoon, cocoon, and neither. Typical sGRB jets break out of the dynamical ejecta if (i) the bound ejecta's isotropic equivalent mass along the pole at the time of the BH formation is $ \lesssim10^{-4}~{\rm M_{\odot}} $, setting a limit on the delay time between the merger and BH formation, otherwise, the jets perish inside the ejecta and leave the jet-inflated cocoon to power a low-luminosity sGRB; (ii) the post-merger remnant disk contains strong large-scale vertical magnetic field, $\gtrsim10^{15}$ G; and (iii) if the jets are weak ($\lesssim10^{50}$ erg), the ejecta's isotropic equivalent mass along the pole must be small ($\lesssim10^{-2}~{\rm M_{\odot}}$). Generally, the jet structure is shaped by the early interaction with disk winds rather than the dynamical ejecta. As long as our jets break out of the ejecta, they retain a significant magnetization ($\lesssim1$), suggesting that magnetic reconnection is a fundamental property of sGRB emission. The angular structure of the outflow isotropic equivalent energy after breakout consistently features a flat core followed by a steep power-law distribution (slope $\gtrsim3$), similar to hydrodynamic jets. In the cocoon-only outcome, the dynamical ejecta broadens the outflow angular distribution and flattens it (slope $\sim1.5$)., Comment: For movies of the simulation, see http://www.oregottlieb.com/NSM_GRMHD.html

The first binary neutron star merger has already been detected in gravitational waves. The signal was accompanied by an electromagnetic counterpart including a kilonova component powered by the decay of radioactive nuclei, as well as a short $\gamma$-ray burst. In order to understand the radioactively-powered signal, it is necessary to simulate the outflows and their nucleosynthesis from the post-merger disk. Simulating the disk and predicting the composition of the outflows requires general relativistic magnetohydrodynamical (GRMHD) simulations that include a realistic, finite-temperature equation of state (EOS) and self-consistently calculating the impact of neutrinos. In this work, we detail the implementation of a finite-temperature EOS and the treatment of neutrinos in the GRMHD code HARM3D+NUC, based on HARM3D. We include formal tests of both the finite-temperature EOS and the neutrino leakage scheme. We further test the code by showing that, given conditions similar to those of published remnant disks following neutron star mergers, it reproduces both recombination of free nucleons to a neutron-rich composition and excitation of a thermal wind., Comment: 19 pages, 14 figures, published in ApJ

The discovery of GRB 170817A, the first unambiguous off-axis short gamma-ray burst arising from a neutron star merger, has challenged our understanding of the angular structure of relativistic jets. Studies of the jet propagation usually assume that the jet is ejected from the central engine with a top-hat structure and its final structure, which determines the observed light curve and spectra, is primarily regulated by the interaction with the nearby environment. However, jets are expected to be produced with a structure that is more complex than a simple top-hat, as shown by global accretion simulations. We present numerical simulations of short GRBs launched with a wide range of initial structures, durations and luminosities. We follow the jet interaction with the merger remnant wind and compute its final structure at distances $\gtrsim 10^{11}$~cm from the central engine. We show that the final jet structure, as well as the resulting afterglow emission, depend strongly on the initial structure of the jet, its luminosity and duration. While the initial structure at the jet is preserved for long-lasting SGRBs, it is strongly modified for jets barely making their way through the wind. This illustrates the importance of combining the results of global simulations with propagation studies in order to better predict the expected afterglow signatures from neutron star mergers. Structured jets provide a reasonable description of the GRB 170817A afterglow emission with an off-axis angle $\theta_{\rm obs} \approx 22.5^\circ$., Comment: 9 pages, 7 Figures; Added discussion; Accepted for publication in MNRAS

The first neutron star binary merger detected in gravitational waves, GW170817 and the subsequent detection of its emission across the electromagnetic spectrum showed that these systems are viable progenitors of short $\gamma$-ray bursts (sGRB). The afterglow signal of GW170817 has been found to be consistent with a structured GRB jet seen off-axis, requiring significant amounts of relativistic material at large angles. This trait can be attributed to the interaction of the relativistic jet with the external wind medium. Here we perform numerical simulations of relativistic jets interacting with realistic wind environments in order to explore how the properties of the wind and central engine affect the structure of successful jets. We find that the angular energy distribution of the jet depends primarily on the ratio between the lifetime of the jet and the time it takes the merger remnant to collapse. We make use of these simulations to constrain the time it took for the merger remnant in GW170817 to collapse into a black hole based on the angular structure of the jet as inferred from afterglow observations. We conclude that the lifetime of the merger remnant in GW170817 was $\approx 1-1.7$s, which, after collapse, triggered the formation of the jet., Comment: 13 figures, 15 pages, accepted in ApJ

The collapse of a massive star with low angular momentum content is commonly argued to result in the formation of a black hole without an accompanying bright transient. Our goal in this Letter is to understand the flow in and around a newly-formed black hole, involving accretion and rotation, via general relativistic hydrodynamics simulations aimed at studying the conditions under which infalling material can accrete without forming a centrifugally supported structure and, as a result, generate no effective feedback. If the feedback from the black hole is, on the other hand, significant, the collapse would be halted and we suggest that the event is likely to be followed by a bright transient. We find that feedback is only efficient if the specific angular momentum of the infalling material at the innermost stable circular orbit exceeds that of geodesic circular flow at that radius by at least $\approx 20\%$. We use the results of our simulations to constrain the maximal stellar rotation rates of the disappearing massive progenitors PHL293B-LBV and N6946-BH1, and to provide an estimate of the overall rate of disappearing massive stars. We find that about a few percent of single O-type stars with measured rotational velocities are expected to spin below the critical value before collapse and are thus predicted to vanish without a trace., 9 pages, 5 figures, accepted at ApJ Letters

11 hours after the detection of gravitational wave source GW170817 by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory and Virgo Interferometers, an associated optical transient SSS17a was discovered in the galaxy NGC 4993. While the gravitational wave data indicate GW170817 is consistent with the merger of two compact objects, the electromagnetic observations provide independent constraints of the nature of that system. Here we synthesize all optical and near-infrared photometry and spectroscopy of SSS17a collected by the One-Meter Two-Hemisphere collaboration. We find that SSS17a is unlike other known transients. The source is best described by theoretical models of a kilonova consisting of radioactive elements produced by rapid neutron capture (the r-process). We find that SSS17a was the result of a binary neutron star merger, reinforcing the gravitational wave result., Comment: 21 pages, 4 figures, accepted to Science

The combined detection of a gravitational-wave signal, kilonova, and short gamma-ray burst (sGRB) from GW170817 marked a scientific breakthrough in the field of multi-messenger astronomy. But even before GW170817, there have been a number of sGRBs with possible associated kilonova detections. In this work, we re-examine these "historical" sGRB afterglows with a combination of state-of-the-art afterglow and kilonova models. This allows us to include optical/near-infrared synchrotron emission produced by the sGRB as well as ultraviolet/optical/near-infrared emission powered by the radioactive decay of $r$-process elements (i.e., the kilonova). Fitting the lightcurves, we derive the velocity and the mass distribution as well as the composition of the ejected material. The posteriors on kilonova parameters obtained from the fit were turned into distributions for the peak magnitude of the kilonova emission in different bands and the time at which this peak occurs. From the sGRB with an associated kilonova, we found that the peak magnitude in H bands falls in the range [-16.2, -13.1] ($95\%$ of confidence) and occurs within $0.8-3.6\,\rm days$ after the sGRB prompt emission. In g band instead we obtain a peak magnitude in range [-16.8, -12.3] occurring within the first $18\,\rm hr$ after the sGRB prompt. From the luminosity distributions of GW170817/AT2017gfo, kilonova candidates GRB130603B, GRB050709 and GRB060614 (with the possible inclusion of GRB150101B) and the upper limits from all the other sGRBs not associated with any kilonova detection we obtain for the first time a kilonova luminosity function in different bands., Published in MNRAS, 24 pages, 14 figures

On 2017 August 17, Swope Supernova Survey 2017a (SSS17a) was discovered as the optical counterpart of the binary neutron star gravitational wave event GW170817. We report time-series spectroscopy of SSS17a from 11.75 hours until 8.5 days after merger. Over the first hour of observations the ejecta rapidly expanded and cooled. Applying blackbody fits to the spectra, we measure the photosphere cooling from $11,000^{+3400}_{-900}$ K to $9300^{+300}_{-300}$ K, and determine a photospheric velocity of roughly 30% of the speed of light. The spectra of SSS17a begin displaying broad features after 1.46 days, and evolve qualitatively over each subsequent day, with distinct blue (early-time) and red (late-time) components. The late-time component is consistent with theoretical models of r-process-enriched neutron star ejecta, whereas the blue component requires high velocity, lanthanide-free material., Comment: 33 pages, 5 figures, 2 tables, Accepted to Science

This paper examines the properties of flows around objects embedded within common envelopes in the simplified context of a "wind tunnel." We establish characteristic relationships between key common envelope flow parameters like the Mach number and density scale height. Our wind tunnel is a three-dimensional, cartesian geometry hydrodynamic simulation setup that includes the gravity of the primary and secondary stars and allows us to study the coefficients of drag and accretion experienced by the embedded object. Accretion and drag lead to a transformation of an embedded object and its orbit during a common envelope phase. We present two suites of simulations spanning a range of density gradients and Mach numbers -- relevant for flow near the limb of a stellar envelope to the deep interior. In one suite, we adopt an ideal gas adiabatic exponent of $\gamma=5/3$, in the other, $\gamma=4/3$. We find that coefficients of drag rise in flows with steeper density gradients and that coefficients of drag and accretion are consistently higher in the more compressible, $\gamma=4/3$ flow. We illustrate the impact of these newly derived coefficients by integrating the inspiral of a secondary object through the envelopes of $3M_\odot$ ($\gamma\approx5/3$) and $80M_\odot$ ($\gamma\approx4/3$) giants. In these examples, we find a relatively rapid initial inspiral because, near the stellar limb, dynamical friction drag is generated mainly from dense gas focussed from deeper within the primary-star's envelope. This rapid initial inspiral timescale carries potential implications for the timescale of transients from early common envelope interaction.

We discovered Swope Supernova Survey 2017a (SSS17a) in the LIGO/Virgo Collaboration (LVC) localization volume of GW170817, the first detected binary neutron star (BNS) merger, only 10.9 hours after the trigger. No object was present at the location of SSS17a only a few days earlier, providing a qualitative spatial and temporal association with GW170817. Here we quantify this association, finding that SSS17a is almost certainly the counterpart of GW170817, with the chance of a coincidence being < 9 x 10^-6 (90% confidence). We arrive at this conclusion by comparing the optical properties of SSS17a to other known astrophysical transients, finding that SSS17a fades and cools faster than any other observed transient. For instance, SSS17a fades >5 mag in g within 7 days of our first data point while all other known transients of similar luminosity fade by, 8 pages, 4 figures, accepted to ApJ Letters

On 2017 August 17, gravitational waves were detected from a binary neutron star merger, GW170817, along with a coincident short gamma-ray burst, GRB170817A. An optical transient source, Swope Supernova Survey 17a (SSS17a), was subsequently identified as the counterpart of this event. We present ultraviolet, optical and infrared light curves of SSS17a extending from 10.9 hours to 18 days post-merger. We constrain the radioactively-powered transient resulting from the ejection of neutron-rich material. The fast rise of the light curves, subsequent decay, and rapid color evolution are consistent with multiple ejecta components of differing lanthanide abundance. The late-time light curve indicates that SSS17a produced at least ~0.05 solar masses of heavy elements, demonstrating that neutron star mergers play a role in r-process nucleosynthesis in the Universe., Accepted to Science

On 2017 August 17, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) and the Virgo interferometer detected gravitational waves emanating from a binary neutron star merger, GW170817. Nearly simultaneously, the Fermi and INTEGRAL telescopes detected a gamma-ray transient, GRB 170817A. 10.9 hours after the gravitational wave trigger, we discovered a transient and fading optical source, Swope Supernova Survey 2017a (SSS17a), coincident with GW170817. SSS17a is located in NGC 4993, an S0 galaxy at a distance of 40 megaparsecs. The precise location of GW170817 provides an opportunity to probe the nature of these cataclysmic events by combining electromagnetic and gravitational-wave observations., Comment: 25 pages, 10 figures, 2 tables, published today in Science

The most popular model for short gamma-ray bursts (sGRBs) involves the coalescence of binary neutron stars. Because the progenitor is actually hidden from view, we must consider under which circumstances such merging systems are capable of producing a successful sGRB. Soon after coalescence, winds are launched from the merger remnant. In this paper, we use realistic wind profiles derived from global merger simulations in order to investigate the interaction of sGRB jets with these winds using numerical simulations. We analyze the conditions for which these axisymmetric winds permit relativistic jets to breakout and produce a sGRB. We find that jets with luminosities comparable to those observed in sGRBs are only successful when their half-opening angles are below ~20{\deg}. This jet collimation mechanism leads to a simple physical interpretation of the luminosities and opening angles inferred for sGRBs. If wide, low luminosity jets are observed, they might be indicative of a different progenitor avenue such as the merger of a neutron star with a black hole. We also use the observed durations of sGRB to place constraints on the lifetime of the wind phase, which is determined by the time it takes the jet to breakout. In all cases we find that the derived limits argue against completely stable remnants for binary neutron star mergers that produce sGRBs., Comment: 6 pages, 5 figures, Submitted to ApJL

We present an analysis of the host-galaxy environment of Swope Supernova Survey 2017a (SSS17a), the discovery of an electromagnetic counterpart to a gravitational wave source, GW170817. SSS17a occurred 1.9 kpc (in projection; 10.2") from the nucleus of NGC 4993, an S0 galaxy at a distance of 40 Mpc. We present a Hubble Space Telescope (HST) pre-trigger image of NGC 4993, Magellan optical spectroscopy of the nucleus of NGC 4993 and the location of SSS17a, and broad-band UV through IR photometry of NGC 4993. The spectrum and broad-band spectral-energy distribution indicate that NGC 4993 has a stellar mass of log (M/M_solar) = 10.49^{+0.08}_{-0.20} and star formation rate of 0.003 M_solar/yr, and the progenitor system of SSS17a likely had an age of >2.8 Gyr. There is no counterpart at the position of SSS17a in the HST pre-trigger image, indicating that the progenitor system had an absolute magnitude M_V > -5.8 mag. We detect dust lanes extending out to almost the position of SSS17a and >100 likely globular clusters associated with NGC 4993. The offset of SSS17a is similar to many short gamma-ray burst offsets, and its progenitor system was likely bound to NGC 4993. The environment of SSS17a is consistent with an old progenitor system such as a binary neutron star system., ApJL in press

The merging neutron star gravitational wave event GW170817 has been observed throughout the entire electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to $\gamma$-rays. The resulting energetics, variability, and light curves are shown to be consistent with GW170817 originating from the merger of two neutron stars, in all likelihood followed by the prompt gravitational collapse of the massive remnant. The available $\gamma$-ray, X-ray and radio data provide a clear probe for the nature of the relativistic ejecta and the non-thermal processes occurring within, while the ultraviolet, optical and infrared emission are shown to probe material torn during the merger and subsequently heated by the decay of freshly synthesized $r$-process material. The simplest hypothesis that the non-thermal emission is due to a low-luminosity short $\gamma$-ray burst (sGRB) seems to agree with the present data. While low luminosity sGRBs might be common, we show here that the collective prompt and multi-wavelength observations are also consistent with a typical, powerful sGRB seen off-axis. Detailed follow-up observations are thus essential before we can place stringent constraints on the nature of the relativistic ejecta in GW170817., Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures, accepted to ApJ Letters

During a common envelope episode in a binary system, the engulfed companion spirals to tighter orbital separations under the influence of drag from the surrounding envelope material. As this object sweeps through material with a steep radial gradient of density, net angular momentum is introduced into the flow, potentially leading to the formation of an accretion disk. The presence of a disk would have dramatic consequences for the outcome of the interaction because accretion might be accompanied by strong, polar outflows with enough energy to unbind the entire envelope. Without a detailed understanding of the necessary conditions for disk formation during common envelope, therefore, it is difficult to accurately predict the population of merging compact binaries. This paper examines the conditions for disk formation around objects embedded within common envelopes using the `wind tunnel' formalism developed by MacLeod et al. (2017). We find that the formation of disks is highly dependent on the compressibility of the envelope material. Disks form only in the most compressible of stellar envelope gas, found in envelopes' outer layers in zones of partial ionization. These zones are largest in low-mass stellar envelopes, but comprise small portions of the envelope mass and radius in all cases. We conclude that disk formation and associated accretion feedback in common envelope is rare, and if it occurs, transitory. The implication for LIGO black hole binary assembly is that by avoiding strong accretion feedback, common envelope interactions should still result in the substantial orbital tightening needed to produce merging binaries., Comment: 12 pages, 10 figures, submitted to ApJ

The central engine of short gamma-ray bursts (sGRBs) is hidden from direct view, operating at a scale much smaller than that probed by the emitted radiation. Thus we must infer its origin not only with respect to the formation of the {\it trigger} - the actual astrophysical configuration that is capable of powering a sGRB - but also from the consequences that follow from the various evolutionary pathways that may be involved in producing it. Considering binary neutron star mergers we critically evaluate, analytically and through numerical simulations, whether the neutrino-driven wind produced by the newly formed hyper-massive neutron star can allow the collimated relativistic outflow that follows its collapse to actually produce a sGRB or not. Upon comparison with the observed sGRB duration distribution, we find that collapse cannot be significantly delayed (, 6 pages, 5 figures. Accepted for publication in ApJL