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Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is one of the most broadly used statistical methods for the ordination and dimensionality-reduction of multivariate datasets across many scientific disciplines. Trivial PCs can be estimated from data sets without any correlational structure among the original variables, and traditional criteria for selecting non-trivial PC axes are difficult to implement, partially subjective or based on ad hoc thresholds. PCAtest is an R package that implements permutation-based statistical tests to evaluate the overall significance of a PCA, the significance of each PC axis, and of contributions of each observed variable to the significant axes. Based on simulation and empirical results, I encourage R users to routinely apply PCAtest to test the significance of their PCA before proceeding with the direct interpretation of PC axes and/or the utilization of PC scores in subsequent evolutionary and ecological analyses.

Although phylogenetic studies have shown covariation between the properties of spider major ampullate (MA) silk and web building, both spider webs and silks are highly plastic so we cannot be sure whether these traits functionally covary or just vary across environments that the spiders occupy. As MaSp2-like proteins provide MA silk with greater extensibility, their presence is considered necessary for spider webs to effectively capture prey. Wolf spiders (Lycosidae) are predominantly non-web building, but a select few species build webs. We accordingly collected MA silk from two web-building and six non-web-building species found in semirural ecosystems in Uruguay to test whether the presence of MaSp2-like proteins (indicated by amino acid composition, silk mechanical properties and silk nanostructures) was associated with web building across the group. The web-building and non-web-building species were from disparate subfamilies so we estimated a genetic phylogeny to perform appropriate comparisons. For all of the properties measured, we found differences between web-building and non-web-building species. A phylogenetic regression model confirmed that web building and not phylogenetic inertia influences silk properties. Our study definitively showed an ecological influence over spider silk properties. We expect that the presence of the MaSp2-like proteins and the subsequent nanostructures improves the mechanical performance of silks within the webs. Our study furthers our understanding of spider web and silk co-evolution and the ecological implications of spider silk properties.

Made available in DSpace on 2018-12-11T17:23:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2017-01-01 Protected areas (PAs) are essential for biodiversity conservation, but their coverage is considered inefficient for the preservation of all species. Many species are subdivided into evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) and the effectiveness of PAs in protecting them needs to be investigated. We evaluated the usefulness of the Brazilian PAs network in protecting ESUs of the critically endangered Pithecopus ayeaye through ongoing climate change. This species occurs in a threatened mountaintop ecosystem known as campos rupestres. We used multilocus DNA sequences to delimit geographic clusters, which were further validated as ESUs with a coalescent approach. Ecological niche modeling was used to estimate spatial changes in ESUs' potential distributions, and a gap analysis was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the Brazilian PAs network to protect P. ayeaye in the face of climate changes. We tested the niche overlap between ESUs to gain insights for potential management alternatives for the species. Pithecopus ayeaye contains at least three ESUs isolated in distinct mountain regions, and one of them is not protected by any PA. There are no climatic niche differences between the units, and only 4% of the suitable potential area of the species is protected in present and future projections. The current PAs are not effective in preserving the intraspecific diversity of P. ayeaye in its present and future range distributions. The genetic structure of P. ayeaye could represent a typical pattern in campos rupestres endemics, which should be considered for evaluating its conservation status. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zoologia Instituto de Ciências Biológicas Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais Brasil Programa de Desarrollo Universitario Centro Universitario de Rivera Universidad de la República - UdelaR Rivera Uruguay Laboratório de Herpetologia Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociências de Rio Claro Universidade Estadual Júlio Mesquita Filho - UNESP Rio Claro, São Paulo Brasil Centro de Sensoriamento Remoto Instituto de Geociências Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais Brasil Laboratório de Fauna e Unidades de Conservação Departamento de Engenharia Florestal Faculdade de Tecnologia Universidade de Brasília - UnB Brasília, Distrito Federal Brasil Graduação em Ciências Biológicas Instituto de Ciências Biológicas Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais Brasil Laboratório Sagarana Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde Universidade Federal de Viçosa - UFV Florestal, Minas Gerais Brasil

Coalescent-based algorithms coupled with the access to genome-wide data have become powerful tools forassessing questions on recent or rapid diversification, as well as delineating species boundaries in the absence of reciprocal monophyly. In southern South America, the diversification of Liolaemus lizards during the Pleistocene is well documented and has been attributed to the climatic changes that characterized this recent period of time. Past climatic changes had harsh effects at extreme latitudes, including Patagonia, but habitat changes at intermediate latitudes of South America have also been recorded, including expansion of sand fields over northern Patagonia and Pampas). In this work, we apply a coalescent-based approach to study the diversification of the Liolaemus wiegmannii species complex, a morphologically conservative clade that inhabits sandy soils across northwest and south-central Argentina, and the south shores of Uruguay. Using four standard sequence markers (mitochondrial DNA and three nuclear loci) along with ddRADseq data we inferred species limits and a time calibrated species tree for the L. wiegmannii complex in order to evaluate the influence of Quaternary sand expansion/retraction cycles on diversification. We also evaluated the evolutionary independence of the recently described L. gardeli and inferred its phylogenetic position relative to L. wiegmannii. We find strong evidence for six allopatric candidate species within L. wiegmannii, which diversified during the Pleistocene. The Great Patagonian Glaciation (∼1 million years before present) likely split the species complex into two main groups: one composed of lineages associated with sub-Andean sedimentary formations, and the other mostly related to sand fields in the Pampas and northern Patagonia. We hypothesize that early speciation within L. wiegmannii was influenced by the expansion of sand dunes throughout central Argentina and Pampas. Finally, L. gardeli is supported as a distinct lineage nested within the L. wiegmannii complex. Fil: Villamil, Joaquín. Universidad de la República. Facultad de Ciencias; Uruguay Fil: Avila, Luciano Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Morando, Mariana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Sites, Jack W.. University Brigham Young; Estados Unidos Fil: Leaché, Adam D.. University of Washington; Estados Unidos Fil: Maneyro, Raúl. Universidad de la República. Facultad de Ciencias; Uruguay Fil: Camargo Bentaberry, Arley. Universidad de la República; Uruguay

Two lizard species that occur in northern Uruguay are poorly known: Stenocercus azureus and Hemidactylus mabouia. We sequenced the genes 12S and ND2 and estimated phylogenetic trees. The H. mabouia sequence found in Rivera City was unique and more closely related to a widely distributed haplotype found in Brazil, Argentina, and the Caribbean. The S. azureus from near Masoller (Salto) grouped with a sample of S. azureus from Bajada de Pena (Rivera). We encourage further sampling in order to assess the population structure of H. mabouia in Rivera City and to delineate potential conservation units of S. azureus in the region.

The yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti is the main vector of several arboviruses in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including the dengue virus. We collected 14 larva and pupa of Aedes from urban households in Rivera City, northern Uruguay, to obtain DNA sequences of the mitochondrial ND4 gene. Our results confirmed that our samples belong to Ae. aegypti. In addition, the two haplotypes found are common worldwide or in the Americas, including Argentina and Brazil. However, the limited availability of ND4 sequences from Argentina and southern Brazil and the widespread geographic distribution of these haplotypes, do not allow ruling out several potential routes of colonization of northern Uruguay.

Speciation processes have long been inferred from phylogenetic, phylogeographic, and biogeographic pattern-driven perspectives. Now much current speciation research is attempting to more directly describe the underlying processes and mechanisms of divergence leading to speciation. Ideally, researchers should integrate both process- and pattern-based approaches for a more comprehensive understanding of speciation. To this end, a symposium was organized during the 7th World Congress of Herpetology in Canada with the goal of bringing leading experts together to share successful examples of these perspectives and to promote a more cohesive understanding of reptile and amphibian speciation. Here we present a joint paper of short and updated summaries of each of these contributions with the aim of providing a reference source and launching pad for students and researchers interested in speciation in amphibians and reptiles.

The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), which is distributed across most of the Neotropical region, is a reservoir of the rabies virus. In Uruguay, there have been recent reports of paralytic rabies in cattle transmitted by the common vampire bat. We sequenced the cytochrome b gene of five bats from northern Uruguay. All five DNA sequences were identical and grouped with a southern Atlantic Forest clade, suggesting recent dispersal from nearby Brazil, as revealed in phylogeographic diffusion analysis.

Protected areas (PAs) are essential for biodiversity conservation, but their coverage is considered inefficient for the preservation of all species. Many species are subdivided into evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) and the effectiveness of PAs in protecting them needs to be investigated. We evaluated the usefulness of the Brazilian PAs network in protecting ESUs of the critically endangered Pithecopus ayeaye through ongoing climate change. This species occurs in a threatened mountaintop ecosystem known as campos rupestres. We used multilocus DNA sequences to delimit geographic clusters, which were further validated as ESUs with a coalescent approach. Ecological niche modeling was used to estimate spatial changes in ESUs’ potential distributions, and a gap analysis was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the Brazilian PAs network to protect P. ayeaye in the face of climate changes. We tested the niche overlap between ESUs to gain insights for potential management alternatives for the species. Pithecopus ayeaye contains at least three ESUs isolated in distinct mountain regions, and one of them is not protected by any PA. There are no climatic niche differences between the units, and only 4% of the suitable potential area of the species is protected in present and future projections. The current PAs are not effective in preserving the intraspecific diversity of P. ayeaye in its present and future range distributions. The genetic structure of P. ayeaye could represent a typical pattern in campos rupestres endemics, which should be considered for evaluating its conservation status.

6 Corresponding author. ABSTRACT. Intrapopulation variation includes age and sexual variation, but also individual niche specialization. Individual specialization has important effects on dynamics at population or community levels. Environmental variation and intraspecific interactions are factors that can promote or enhance this kind of variation. Despite its relevance, knowledge about individual specialization in amphibians is still scarce, especially in species from temperate regions. In this study we analyzed the intrapopulational variation of the trophic niche in Hypsiboas pulchellus from a population in southern Uruguay. Particularly, we analyzed ontogenetic and sexual variation and individual specialization of the diet. We found ontogenetic variation in diet as a result of a shift from flies to beetles with increasing body size of frogs, but there were no differences in diet between males and females. We also found evidence of individual specialization, which varied seasonally together with population trophic niche width; during the warm season (October-March), individual specialization and population TNW both increased.

Lizards have been model organisms for ecological and evolutionary studies from individual to community levels at multiple spatial and temporal scales. Here we highlight lizards as models for phylogeographic studies, review the published population genetics ⁄phylogeography literature to summarize general patterns and trends and describe some studies that have contributed to conceptual advances. Our review includes 426 references and 452 case studies: this literature reflects a general trend of exponential growth associated with the theoretical and empirical expansions of the discipline. We describe recent lizard studies that have contributed to advances in understanding of several aspects of phylogeography, emphasize some linkages between phylogeography and speciation and suggest ways to expand phylogeographic studies to test alternative pattern-based modes of speciation. Allopatric speciation patterns can be tested by phylogeographic approaches if these are designed to discriminate among four alternatives based on the role of selection in driving divergence between populations, including: (i) passive divergence by genetic drift; (ii) adaptive divergence by natural selection (niche conservatism or ecological speciation); and (iii) socially-mediated speciation. Here we propose an expanded approach to compare patterns of variation in phylogeographic data sets that, when coupled with morphological and environmental data, can be used to discriminate among these alternative speciation patterns. [Correction made after online publication (28/07/2010): (minor deletion in the last line of the abstract)].

The native species of amphibians and reptiles of Uruguay were categorized according to the IUCN Red List criteria. Out of 47 amphibian species, seven are listed as Critically Endangered (CR), five as Endangered (EN), one as Vulnerable (VU), three as Near Threatened (NT), and two as Data Deficient (DD); the remaining species are considered to be Least Concern (LC). Among the 64 species of reptiles evaluated, one is listed as Critically Endangered (CR), seven as Endangered (EN), two as Vulnerable (VU), one as Near Threatened (NT) and seven as Data Deficient (DD); the rest are considered to be Least Concern (LC). The use of these results as an additional criterion in the definition of protected areas in Uruguay will contribute towards the conservation of the aforementioned threatened species and their associated ecosystems.

Patterns of reproductive allocation are expected to differ between species according to temporally and spatially variable costs of reproduction. Even when reproductive allocation patterns are the same, species can also differ in how the reproductive effort is allocated between offspring number and size. In this study, we compared the reproductive allocation patterns and the offspring number vs. size trade-off in two frog species, Physalaemus biligonigerus and P. gracilis, using bivariate (standardized major axis) and multiple linear regressions. Both species showed a common slope between body size and reproductive effort and thus a similar allocation pattern although P. biligonigerus has a larger body size (shift along common slope) and makes a lower reproductive effort (shift in intercept) than P. gracilis. We suggest that similar allocation patterns may be related to the shared phenologies of these frogs and that the differences in reproductive effort could represent either an adaptive shift (e.g., change in body space for the clutch) or a historical constraint. There was a negative correlation between fecundity and egg size in P. biligonigerus but not in P. gracilis as predicted by the acquisition–allocation model (Y-model). This study constitutes the first valid test of the Y-model based on recent predictions derived for the trade-off between offspring size vs. number. We conclude that future studies should compare reproductive allocation patterns between species using tests of allometric slopes with appropriate phylogenetic control to detect both adaptive shifts in allocation strategies and correlations with other life-history traits.

Relative to South America's ecoregions, the temperate grasslands of the Pampas have been poorly studied from a phylogeographic perspective. Based on an intermediate biogeographic setting between subtropical forest (Atlantic Forest) and arid ecosystems (Chaco and Patagonia), Pampean species are expected to show unstable demographic histories due to the Quaternary climatic oscillations. Herein, we investigate the phylogenetic relatedness and phylogeographic history of Pseudopaludicola falcipes, a small and common frog that is widely distributed across the Pampean grasslands. First, we use molecular data to assess if P. falcipes represents a single or multiple, separately evolving cryptic lineages. Because P. falcipes is a small-size species (

Leptodactylus fuscus is a neotropical frog ranging from Panama to Argentina, to the east of the Andes mountains, and also inhabiting Margarita, Trinidad, and the Tobago islands. We performed phylogenetic analyses of 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, tRNA-Leu, and ND1 mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences from specimens collected across the geographic distribution of L. fuscus to examine two alternative hypotheses: (i) L. fuscus is a single, widely distributed species, or (ii) L. fuscus is a species complex. We tested statistically for geographic association and partitioning of genetic variation among mtDNA clades. The mtDNA data supported the hypothesis of several cryptic species within L. fuscus. Unlinked mtDNA and nuclear markers supported independently the distinctness of a ‘northern’ phylogenetic unit. In addition, the mtDNA data divided the southern populations into two clades that showed no sister relationship to each other, consistent with high differentiation and lack of gene flow among southern populations as suggested by allozyme data. Concordance between mtDNA and allozyme patterns suggests that cryptic speciation has occurred in L. fuscus without morphological or call differentiation. This study illustrates a case in which lineage splitting during the speciation process took place without divergence in reproductive isolation mechanisms (e.g. advertisement call in frogs), contrary to expectations predicted using a biological species framework. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 87 , 325‐341. No claim to original US government works.

A phylogeny of the species-rich clade of the Neotropical frog genus Leptodactylus sensu stricto is presented on the basis of a total evidence analysis of molecular (mitochondrial and nuclear markers) and non-molecular (adult and larval morphological and behavioral characters) sampled from > 80% of the 75 currently recognized species. Our results support the monophyly of Leptodactylus sensu stricto, with Hydrolaetare placed as its sister group. The reciprocal monophyly of Hydrolaetare and Leptodactylus sensu stricto does not require that we consider Hydrolaetare as either a subgenus or synonym of Leptodactylus sensu lato. We recognize Leptodactylus sensu stricto, Hydrolaetare, Adenomera, and Lithodytes as valid monophyletic genera. Our results generally support the traditionally recognized Leptodactylus species groups, with exceptions involving only a few species that are easily accommodated without proposing new groups or significantly altering contents. The four groups form a pectinate tree, with the Leptodactylus fuscus group diverging first, followed by the L. pentadactylus group, which is sister to the L. latrans and L. melanonotus groups. To evaluate the impact of non-molecular evidence on our results, we compared our total evidence results with results obtained from analyses using only molecular data. Although non-molecular evidence comprised only 3.5% of the total evidence matrix, it had a strong impact on our total evidence results. Only one species group was monophyletic in the molecular-only analysis, and support differed in 86% of the 54 Leptodactylus clades that are shared by the results of the two analyses. Even though no non-molecular evidence was included for Hydrolaetare, exclusion of that data partition resulted in that genus being nested within Leptodactylus, demonstrating that the inclusion of a small amount of non-molecular evidence for a subset of species can alter not only the placement of those species, but also species that were not scored for those data. The evolution of several natural history and reproductive traits is considered in the light of our phylogenic framework. Invasion of rocky outcrops, larval oophagy, and use of underground reproductive chambers are restricted to species of the Leptodactylus fuscus and L. pentadactylus groups. In contrast, larval schooling, larval attendance, and more complex parental care are restricted to the L. latrans and L. melanonotus groups. Construction of foam nests is plesiomorphic in Leptodactylus but their placement varies extensively (e.g., underground chambers, surface of waterbodies, natural or excavated basins). Information on species synonymy, etymology, adult and larval morphology, advertisement call, and geographic distribution is summarized in species accounts for the 30 species of the Leptodactylus fuscus group, 17 species of the L. pentadactylus group, eight species of the L. latrans group, and 17 species of the L. melanonotus group, as well as the three species that are currently unassigned to any species group. Se presenta una filogenia del género Leptodactylus, un clado neotropical rico en especies, basada en análises combinados de datos moleculares (marcadores nuclear y mitocondriales) y no moleculares (caracteres de la morfología de adultos y larvas así como de comportamiento) se muestrearon > 80% de las 75 especies reconocidas. Los resultados apoyan la monofília de Leptodactylus sensu stricto, con Hydrolaetare como su grupo hermano. La monofília recíproca de Hydrolaetare y Leptodactylus no requiere considerar a Hydrolaetare como un subgénero o sinónimo de Leptodactylus sensu lato. Se reconocen Leptodactylus sensu stricto, Hydrolaetare, Adenomera y Lithodytes como géneros monofiléticos válidos. Los resultados en general resuelven los grupos tradicionalmente reconocidos de Leptodactylus, con excepciones de algunas especies que son reasignadas sin la necesidad de proponer nuevos grupos o alterar significativamente el contenido de los grupos tradicionales. Los cuatro grupos de especies forman una topología pectinada donde el grupo de L. fuscus tiene una posición basal, seguido por el grupo de L. pentadactylus que es el grupo hermano al clado formado por los grupo de L. latrans y L. melanonotus. Se estimó el impacto de los datos no moleculares en los resultados, comparándose los resultados de evidencia total con los de los análises de datos moleculares solamente. Los datos no moleculares representan un 3.5% de la matriz de evidencia total, pero estos datos tuvieron un impacto significativo en los resultados del análisis de evidencia total. En el análisis estrictamente molecular solamente un grupo de especies resultó monofilético, y el apoyo difirió en 86% de los 54 clados de Leptodactylus compartidos entre los dos análises. A pesar que datos no moleculares no fueron incluídos para Hydrolaetare, la exclusión de evidencia no molecular resultó en el género estar dentro de Leptodactylus, demostrando que la inclusión de evidencia no molecular pequeña para un subgrupo de especies altera no solamente la posición topológica de esas especies, sino tambien de las especies para las cuales dichos datos no fueron codificados. La evolución de patrones de historia natural y reprodución se evalúan en el contexto filogenético. La invasión de afloramientos rocosos y la construción de cámaras de reprodución subterraneas está limitada a los grupos de Leptodactylus fuscus y L. pentadactylus, mientras que la oofagia larval está restringida al grupo de L. pentadactylus. Por otro lado, los cárdumenes larvales, la proteción del cárdumen, y otros comportamientos parentales complejos carecterizan al clado formado por los grupos de especies de L. latrans y L. melanonotus. Los resú- menes de especies incluyen información de sinonímias, etimología, morfología de adultos y larvas, cantos, y distribución geográfica para las 30 especies del grupo de Leptodactylus fuscus, 17 especies del grupo L. pentadactylus, ocho especies del grupo de L. latrans, 17 especies del grupo de L. melanonotus, así como para las tres especies que actualmente no se encuentran asociadas a ninguno de los grupos de especies. Fil: de Sá, Rafael O.. University of Richmond; Estados Unidos Fil: Grant, Taran. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Camargo, Arley. University of Richmond; Estados Unidos. Universidad de la Republica; Uruguay Fil: Heyer, W. Ronald. Smithsonian Institution; Estados Unidos Fil: Ponssa, María Laura. Fundación Miguel Lillo; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Stanley, Edward. University of Richmond; Estados Unidos. California Academy of Sciences; Estados Unidos

Until recently, most phylogeographic approaches have been unable to distinguís between demographic and range expansion processes, making it difficult to test for the possibility of range expansion without population growth and vice versa. In this study, we applied a Bayesian phylogeographic approach to reconstruct both demographic and range expansion in the lizard Liolaemus darwinii of the Monte Desert in Central Argentina, during the Late Quaternary. Based on analysis of 14 anonymous nuclear loci and the cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA gene, we detected signals of demographic expansion starting at ~55 ka based on Bayesian Skyline and Skyride Plots. In contrast, Bayesian relaxed models of spatial diffusion suggested that range expansion occurred only between ~95 and 55 ka, and more recently, diffusion rates were very low during demographic expansion. The possibility of population growth without substantial range expansion could account for the shared patterns of demographic expansion during the Last Glacial Maxima (OIS 2 and 4) in fish, small mammals and other lizards of the Monte Desert. We found substantial variation in diffusion rates over time, and very high rates during the range expansion phase, consistent with a rapidly advancing expansion front towards the southeast shown by palaeo-distribution models. Furthermore, the estimated diffusion rates are congruent with observed dispersal rates of lizards in field conditions and therefore provide additional confidence to the temporal scale of inferred phylogeographic patterns. Our study highlights how the integration of phylogeography with palaeo-distribution models can shed light on both demographic and range expansion processes and their potential causes. Fil: Camargo Bentaberry, Arley. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Werneck, Fernanda P.. Brigham Young University. Life Science Museum. Department of Biology & Bean; Estados Unidos. Universidade de Brasılia. Departamento de Zoologia; Brasil Fil: Morando, Mariana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Sites Jr., Jack W.. Brigham Young University. Life Science Museum. Department of Biology & Bean; Estados Unidos Fil: Avila, Luciano Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina

A decade ago Sites and Marshall [1] described the empirical practice of species delimitation as “a Renaissance issue in systematic biology”. At the time there was an odd disconnect be‐ tween the two frequently stated empirical goals systematic biology: the discovery of: (1) monophyletic groups (clades) and relationships within these at all hierarchical levels above species; and (2) lineages (species); compared to the actual practice of the discipline. While much of systematic biology had been devoted to the first goal, the second goal had until re‐ cently been largely ignored [2], despite the fact that species are routinely used as the basic units of analysis in biogeography, ecology, evolutionary biology, and conservation biology [3,4]. However, Sites and Marshall [1] noted “signs of a Renaissance” at the time of their re‐ view, which was precipitated in part by others emphasizing the need to distinguish between a non-operational, ontological definition of species, versus the empirical (operational) data needed to test their reality [5-7]. De Queiroz [7] (p. 60) noted that “All modern species defi‐ nitions either explicitly or implicitly equate species with segments of population level evolu‐ tionary lineages.” De Queiroz also noted that this was a revised version of Simpson’s “evolutionary species concept”, which defines a species as “a lineage (an ancestraldescend‐ ent sequence of populations) evolving separately from others and with its own evolutionary role and tendencies” ([8], p. 153), and called this a General Lineage Concept (GLC) of species ([7], p. 65). De Queiroz [9] further emphasized that the multiple empirical criteria simply re‐ flect the many contingent properties (differences in genetic or morphological features, adap‐ tive zones or ecological niches, mate-recognition systems, reproductive compatibility, monophyly, etc.) of diverging populations associated with different evolutionary processes operating in various geographic contexts [10,11]. Sites and Marshall [1] noted that the emerging consensus among systematists and evolutionary biologists was based on the utili‐ ty of this distinction (ontological definition vs. empirical species delimitation [SDL] meth‐

Species delimitation is a major research focus in evolutionary biology because accurate species boundaries are a prerequisite for the study of speciation. New species delimitation methods (SDMs) can accommodate nonmonophyletic species and gene tree discordance as a result of incomplete lineage sorting via the coalescent model, but do not explicitly accommodate gene flow after divergence. Approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) can incorporate gene flow and estimate other relevant parameters of the speciation process while testing alternative species delimitation hypotheses. We evaluated the accuracy of BPP, SpeDeSTEM, and ABC for delimiting species using simulated data and applied these methods to empirical data from lizards of the Liolaemus darwinii complex. Overall, BPP was the most accurate, ABC showed an intermediate accuracy, and SpeDeSTEM was the least accurate under most simulated conditions. All three SDMs showed lower accuracy when speciation occurred despite gene flow, as found in previous studies, but ABC was the method with the smallest decrease in accuracy. All three SDMs consistently supported the distinctness of southern and northern lineages within L. darwinii. These SDMs based on genetic data should be complemented with novel SDMs based on morphological and ecological data to achieve truly integrative and statistically robust approaches to species discovery.

Molecular phylogenetics has entered a new era in which species trees are estimated from a collection of gene trees using methods that accommodate their heterogeneity and discordance with the species tree. Empirical evaluation of species trees is necessary to assess the performance (i.e., accuracy and precision) of these methods with real data, which consists of gene genealogies likely shaped by different historical and demographic processes. We analyzed 20 loci for 16 species of the South American lizards of the Liolaemus darwinii species group and reconstructed a species tree with *BEAST, then compared the performance of this method under different sampling strategies of loci, individuals, and sequence lengths. We found an increase in the accuracy and precision of species trees with the number of loci, but for any number of loci, accuracy substantially decreased only when using only one individual per species or 25% of the full sequence length (~147 base-pairs). In addition, locus ´informativeness´ was an important factor in the accuracy/precision of species trees when using a few loci, but it became increasingly irrelevant with additional loci. Our empirical results combined with previous simulation studies suggest that there is an optimal range of sampling effort of loci, individuals, and sequence lengths for a given speciation history and information content of the data. Future studies should be directed towards further assessment of other factors that can impact performance of species trees, including gene flow, locus ´informativeness´, tree shape, missing data, and errors in species delimitation. Fil: Camargo Bentaberry, Arley. University Brigham Young; Estados Unidos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Nacional Patagónico; Argentina Fil: Avila, Luciano Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Morando, Mariana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Centro Nacional Patagónico. Instituto Patagónico para el Estudio de los Ecosistemas Continentales; Argentina Fil: Sites, Jack W.. University Brigham Young; Estados Unidos

During the last thirty years, intra and interspecific variation in gut morphometrics has been extensively investigated (Starck, 1999). However, most of this research was conducted in birds, mammals and reptiles (see Piersma and Lindstrom, 1997; and Starck, 1999 for reviews); and to date, practically nothing is known about this topic in postmetamorphic amphibians (see Larsen 1992). The aim of this note is to report and compare intestinal length of four South American anuran species: Leptodactylus ocellatus (Leptodactylidae), Hyla p. pulchella (Hylidae), Bufo gr. granulosus (Bufonidae), and Pseudis minutus (Pseudidae)., Asociación Herpetológica Argentina (AHA)

The native species of amphibians and reptiles of Uruguay were categorized according to the IUCN Red List criteria. Out of 47 amphibian species, seven are listed as Critically Endangered (CR), five as Endangered (EN), one as Vulnerable (VU), three as Near Threatened (NT), and two as Data Deficient (DD); the remaining species are considered to be Least Concern (LC). Among the 64 species of reptiles evaluated, one is listed as Critically Endangered (CR), seven as Endangered (EN), two as Vulnerable (VU), one as Near Threatened (NT) and seven as Data Deficient (DD); the rest are considered to be Least Concern (LC). The use of these results as an additional criterion in the definition of protected areas in Uruguay will contribute towards the conservation of the aforementioned threatened species and their associated ecosystems. Las especies nativas de anfibios y reptiles de Uruguay fueron categorizadas de acuerdo a los criterios de la Lista Roja de UICN. De las 47 especies de anfibios, siete se encuentran En Peligro Crítico (CR), cinco En Peligro (EN), una Vulnerable (VU), tres Casi Amenazadas (NT), y dos con Datos Deficientes (DD); las especies restantes son consideradas como Preocupación Menor (LC). Entre las 64 especies de reptiles evaluados, una se encuentra en Peligro Crítico (CR), siete En Peligro (EN), dos como Vulnerables (VU), una Casi Amenazadas (NT) y siete con Datos Deficientes (DD); las especies restantes son consideradas como Preocupación Menor (LC). El uso de estos resultados como un criterio adicional en la definición de áreas protegidas en Uruguay contribuirá hacia la conservación de dichas especies amenazadas y sus ecosistemas asociados.

The frog Leptodactylus validus occurs in northern South America, Trinidad and Tobago, and the southern Lesser Antilles (Grenada and St. Vincent). Mitochondrial DNA sequences were used to perform a nested clade phylogeographic analysis (NCPA), to date colonization events, and to analyze colonization patterns using on a relaxed molecular clock and coalescent simulations. L. validus originated on the mainland and first colonized Trinidad with subsequent independent colonizations of Tobago and the Lesser Antilles from Trinidad. The NCPA suggests a historical vicariant event between populations in Trinidad and Tobago from those in the Lesser Antilles. The colonization of Trinidad occurred approximately 1 million years ago (mya) and the colonization of the Lesser Antillean islands occurred approximately 0.4 mya. The coalescent approach supported the scenario where L. validus dispersed from Trinidad to St. Vincent and from there to Grenada, a dispersal event that could have been mediated by human introduction as recent as 1600 years ago.

We studied the diet of Elachistocleis bicolor captured in pine, eucalypt, and unmodified environments in Uruguay. Comparisons between seasons (active, inactive) and among three environments (pine, eucalypt, unmodified), were made using rarefaction analyses, importance indices, and non-parametric tests. Elachistocleis bicolor has a specialized diet composed mainly of Pheidole and Solenopsis ants and termites. The diet of E. bicolor includes a high number of prey per individual, suggesting active search as a foraging strategy. The consumption of myrmicine ants (i.e., Solenopsis) represents a source for potential toxic skin secretions that in E. bicolor may be used to avoid being attacked in the ant nests used for shelter during aestivation, as occurs in the microhylid Phrynomantis microps. Diets in forested environments were richer in both periods, which may reflect the colonization of opportunistic ant species in these environments. Ants were more important in the eucalyptus plantations, particularly in the inactive period, whereas termites were more important in the pine plantations mainly in the inactive period. These environmental and seasonal differences in diet are consistent with the temperature and humidity tolerances of ants and termites, which are the main prey of E. bicolor.

The diet of Leptodactylus ocellatus (L., 1758) was studied in specimens collected at Maldonado Department (Uruguay), where monthly surveys were made between August 1998 and March 2000. A total of 143 frogs were collected, measured, sexed, and dissected, to assess stomach contents. The anurans were grouped into three age classes and four categories (considering sex and capture date). The trophic amplitude for each age class and sex-season category was quantified using Shannon-Weaver Index, and the trophic niche overlap between ages and categories by using the Pianka Index. Comparisons among treatments were made by G-tests. The most important prey items were coleopterans (IRI = 2547), and significant correlations were found between predator and prey sizes. The major differences on diet composition were found between extreme age classes (froglets and adults). Significant differences were also detected between sexes in the cold season but not in the warm season. Any of these changes in diet may be related with the availability of prey.