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The ancient anti-alcohol drug disulfiram (DSF) has gained widespread attention for its highly effective anti-tumor effects in cancer treatment. Our previous studies have developed liposome of Cu (DDC) 2 to overcome the limitations, like the poor water solubility. However, Cu (DDC) 2 liposomes still have shown difficulties in severe hemolytic reactions at high doses and systemic toxicity, which have limited their clinical use. Therefore, this study aims to exploratively investigate the feasibility of using DSF or DDC in combination also can chelate Zn 2+ to form zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (Zn (DDC) 2 ). Furthermore, this study prepared stable and homogeneous Zn (DDC) 2 liposomes, which were able to be released in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The released Zn (DDC) 2 was converted to Cu (DDC) 2 with the help of endogenous Cu 2+ -switch enriched in the TME, which has a higher stability constant compared with Zn (DDC) 2 . In other words, the Cu 2+ -switch is activated at the tumor site, completing the conversion of the less cytotoxic Zn (DDC) 2 to the more cytotoxic Cu (DDC) 2 for effective tumor therapy so that the Zn (DDC) 2 liposomes in vivo achieved the comparable therapeutic efficacy and provided a safer alternative to Cu (DDC) 2 liposomes in cancer therapy., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Neurological disorders encompass a broad range of neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases that are complex and almost universally without disease modifying treatments. There is, therefore, significant unmet clinical need to develop novel therapeutic strategies for these patients. Viral gene therapies are a promising approach, where gene delivery is achieved through viral vectors such as adeno-associated virus and lentivirus. The clinical efficacy of such gene therapies has already been observed in two neurological disorders of pediatric onset; for spinal muscular atrophy and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency, gene therapy has significantly modified the natural history of disease in these life-limiting neurological disorders. Here, we review recent advances in gene therapy, focused on the targeted delivery of dopaminergic genes for Parkinson's disease and the primary neurotransmitter disorders, AADC deficiency and dopamine transporter deficiency syndrome (DTDS). Although recent European Medicines Agency and Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency approval of Upstaza (eladocagene exuparvovec) signifies an important landmark, numerous challenges remain. Future research will need to focus on defining the optimal therapeutic window for clinical intervention, better understanding of the duration of therapeutic efficacy, and improved brain targeting. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society., (© 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.)

Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency is a rare inherited neurometabolic disorder that can lead to severe physical and developmental impairment. This report includes 16 patients from the Middle East and is the largest series of patients with confirmed AADC deficiency from this region reported to date. The patients displayed a range of signs and symptoms at presentation and almost all failed to reach major motor milestones. Missed and delayed diagnoses were common leading to the late introduction of targeted treatments. Eight unique variants were identified in the DDC gene, including six missense and two intronic variants. A previously undescribed variant was identified: an intronic variant between exons 13 and 14 (c.1243-10A>G). The patients were mostly treated with currently recommended medications, including dopamine agonists, vitamin B6, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. One patient responded well, but treatment outcomes were otherwise mostly limited to mild symptomatic improvements. Five patients had died by the time of data collection, confirming that the condition is associated with premature mortality. There is an urgent need for earlier diagnosis, particularly given the potential for gene therapy as a transformative treatment for AADC deficiency when provided at an early age.  Conclusions: Delays in the diagnosis of AADC deficiency are common. There is an urgent need for earlier diagnosis, particularly given the potential for gene therapy as a transformative treatment for AADC deficiency when provided at an early age. What is Known: • Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency is a rare neurometabolic disorder that can lead to severe physical and developmental impairment. • Currently recommended medications provide mostly mild symptomatic improvements. What is New: • The clinical presentation of sixteen patients with confirmed AADC deficiency varied considerably and almost all failed to reach major motor milestones. • There is an urgent need for earlier diagnosis, given the potential for gene therapy as a transformative treatment for AADC deficiency when provided at an early age., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The old alcohol-aversion drug disulfiram (DSF) has aroused wide attention as a drug repurposing strategy in terms of cancer therapy because of the high antitumor efficacy in combination with copper ion. However, numerous defects of DSF (e.g., the short half-life and acid instability) have limited the application in cancer treatment. Cu (DDC) 2 , the complex of diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC, DSF metabolite) and Cu 2+ , have been proven as the vital active component on cancer, which have aroused the attention of researchers from DSF to Cu (DDC) 2 . However, the poor water solubility of Cu (DDC) 2 increase more difficulties to the treatment and in-depth investigations of Cu (DDC) 2 . In this study, sphingomyelin (SM)-based PEGylated liposomes (SM/Chol/DSPE-mPEG 2000 (55:40:5, mole%)) were produced as the carriers for Cu (DDC) 2 delivery to enhance the water solubility. DDC was added to Cu-containing liposomes with a higher encapsulation efficiency of more than 90%, and it reacted with Cu 2+ to synthesize Cu (DDC) 2 . Due to the high phase transition temperature of SM and strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds with cholesterol, SM-based liposomes would be conducive to enhancing the stability of Cu (DDC) 2 and preventing drug leakage during delivery. As proven by pharmacokinetic studies, loading Cu (DDC) 2 into liposomes improve bioavailability, and the area under the curve (AUC 0-t ) and the mean elimination half-life (t 1/2 ) increased 1.9-time and 1.3-time to those of free Cu (DDC) 2 , respectively. Furthermore, the anticancer effect of Cu (DDC) 2 was enhanced by the liposomal encapsulation, thus resulting in remarkable cell apoptosis in vitro and a tumor-inhibiting rate of 77.88% in vivo. Thus, it was concluded that Cu (DDC) 2 liposomes could be promising in cancer treatment., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADCD) is a rare inherited disease prevalent in South East Asia. This disease is due to the founder mutation IVS 6 + 4A > T (c.714 + 4A > T), which accounts for most alleles. Patients with this mutation have severe phenotypes. About 90 % of these patients in South East Asia do not have head control and cannot sit, stand, or speak from birth to the time of observation. In 2012, a gene study to treat these patients with intraputamen injection of adeno-associated virus2-human AADC showed prominent motor improvement and an increased PDMS-2 score 12 months after treatment. In addition, systemic gene therapy in a mouse model of AADCD achieved widespread correction of the Ddc gene. In this article, we review the natural history, clinical course, and treatment effects seen in these clinical and mouse studies. Future studies focusing on noninvasive viral vector delivery or alternative emerging treatments may also benefit patients with AADCD., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Phenotyping technologies featured in the diagnosis of inborn errors of metabolism, such as organic acid, amino acid, and acylcarnitine analyses, recently have been supplemented by broad-scale untargeted metabolomic phenotyping. We investigated the analyte changes associated with aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency and dopamine medication treatment., Methods: Using an untargeted metabolomics platform, we analyzed ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid plasma specimens, and biomarkers were identified by comparing the biochemical profile of individual patient samples to a pediatric-centric population cohort., Results: Elevated 3-methoxytyrosine (average z score 5.88) accompanied by significant decreases of dopamine 3-O-sulfate (-2.77), vanillylmandelate (-2.87), and 3-methoxytyramine sulfate (-1.44) were associated with AADC deficiency in three samples from two patients. In five non-AADC patients treated with carbidopa-levodopa, levels of 3-methoxytyrosine were elevated (7.65); however, the samples from non-AADC patients treated with DOPA-elevating drugs had normal or elevated levels of metabolites downstream of aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase, including dopamine 3-O-sulfate (2.92), vanillylmandelate (0.33), and 3-methoxytyramine sulfate (5.07). In one example, a plasma metabolomic phenotype pointed to a probable AADC deficiency and prompted the evaluation of whole exome sequencing data, identifying homozygosity for a known pathogenic variant, whereas whole exome analysis in a second patient revealed compound heterozygosity for two variants of unknown significance., Conclusions: These data demonstrate the power of combining broad-scale genotyping and phenotyping technologies to diagnose inherited neurometabolic disorders and suggest that metabolic phenotyping of plasma can be used to identify AADC deficiency and to distinguish it from non-AADC patients with elevated 3-methoxytyrosine caused by DOPA-raising medications., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related and the second most common neurodegenerative disorder beyond Alzheimer's disease. A neuropathological hallmark of PD is a prominent loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra projecting into the caudate and putamen. Oral administration of L-dopa and/or dopamine agonists ameliorates cardinal motor symptoms of PD. However, an intermittent and long-term treatment with L-dopa frequently induces adverse side effects such as motor fluctuations and dyskinesia. As alternative therapeutic strategies, the following four approaches are currently under evaluation for clinical gene therapy trials in PD; 1) recombinant adeno-associated virus 2 system encoding aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), 2) glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and 3) Neurturin, and 4) equine infectious anemia virus-based lentiviral system encoding AADC, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and GTP cyclohydrolase I (GCH) in a single transcriptional unit. GAD and Neurturin have been assessed in double blind placebocontrolled phase II studies; GAD showed a significant improvement in motor function, and Neurturin, although it failed to show significant effects at 12 months post-treatment, exhibited promising outcomes in additional examinations at 18 months. The other two approaches also represented significant effects in phase I or I/II studies. Adverse side effects due to surgery have not been observed. Here, we review preclinical and clinical trials encouraging further investigations of curative treatment for the patients suffering from PD.

Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) is required for the synthesis of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. Children with defects in the AADC gene show compromised development, particularly in motor function. Drug therapy has only marginal effects on some of the symptoms and does not change early childhood mortality. Here, we performed adeno-associated viral vector-mediated gene transfer of the human AADC gene bilaterally into the putamen of four patients 4 to 6 years of age. All of the patients showed improvements in motor performance: One patient was able to stand 16 months after gene transfer, and the other three patients achieved supported sitting 6 to 15 months after gene transfer. Choreic dyskinesia was observed in all patients, but this resolved after several months. Positron emission tomography revealed increased uptake by the putamen of 6-[(18)F]fluorodopa, a tracer for AADC. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis showed increased dopamine and serotonin levels after gene transfer. Thus, gene therapy targeting primary AADC deficiency is well tolerated and leads to improved motor function.

Background: Putaminal convection-enhanced delivery (CED) of an adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2) vector, containing the human aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (hAADC) gene for the treatment of Parkinson disease (PD), has completed a phase I clinical trial., Objective: To retrospectively analyze magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) data from the phase I trial, correlate those data with similar nonhuman primate (NHP) data, and present how such information may improve future PD gene therapy trials in preparation for the initiation of the phase II trial., Methods: Ten patients with PD had been treated with bilateral MRI-guided putaminal infusions of AAV2-hAADC. MRI and PET scans were obtained at baseline (before vector administration) and at various intervals after treatment. Three normal adult NHPs received similar infusions into the thalamus. Imaging studies for both groups are presented, as well as hAADC immunohistochemistry for the NHPs., Results: Early post-CED MRI confirmed the stereotactic targeting accuracy and revealed T2 hyperintensity around the distal cannula tracts, best seen within 4 hours of surgery. Coregistration of post-CED MRI and PET scans revealed increased PET uptake at the sites of T2 hyperintensity. Similar T2 hyperintensities in NHP MRI correlated with hAADC immunohistochemistry., Conclusion: Our analysis confirms the correct targeting of the CED cannula tracts within the target human putamen. Coregistration of MRI and PET confirms colocalization of T2 hyperintensities and increased PET uptake around the distal cannula tracts. Because PET uptake closely correlates with hAADC transgene expression and NHP data confirm this relationship between T2 hyperintensity and hAADC immunohistochemistry, we believe that T2-weighted MRI allows visualization of a significant part of the distribution volume of the hAADC gene therapy. Recommendations for future protocols based on these data are presented.

Background: In Parkinson disease (PD), the benefit of levodopa therapy becomes less marked over time, perhaps because degeneration of nigrostrial neurons causes progressive loss of aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC), the enzyme that converts levodopa into dopamine. In a primate model of PD, intrastriatal infusion of an adeno-associated viral type 2 vector containing the human AADC gene (AAV-hAADC) results in robust response to low-dose levodopa without the side effects associated with higher doses. These data prompted a clinical trial., Methods: Patients with moderately advanced PD received bilateral intraputaminal infusion of AAV-hAADC vector. Low-dose and high-dose cohorts (5 patients in each) were studied using standardized clinical rating scales at baseline and 6 months. PET scans using the AADC tracer [(18)F]fluoro-L-m-tyrosine (FMT) were performed as a measure of gene expression., Results: The gene therapy was well tolerated, but 1 symptomatic and 2 asymptomatic intracranial hemorrhages followed the operative procedure. Total and motor rating scales improved in both cohorts. Motor diaries also showed increased on-time and reduced off-time without increased "on" time dyskinesia. At 6 months, FMT PET showed a 30% increase of putaminal uptake in the low-dose cohort and a 75% increase in the high-dose cohort., Conclusion: This study provides class IV evidence that bilateral intrastriatal infusion of adeno-associated viral type 2 vector containing the human AADC gene improves mean scores on the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale by approximately 30% in the on and off states, but the surgical procedure may be associated with an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage and self-limited headache.

The present report describes for the first time, the stability of recombinant adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2) human aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (hAADC) gene transfer after 3-year survival time in a non-human primate model of Parkinson's disease. 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned monkeys were treated with six injections of 30 microl/site of AAV2-hAADC at a concentration of 2 x 10(12) vg/ml into the caudate and putamen. Stereological analysis revealed a 46.6% increase in the total number of AAV2-hAADC-transduced cells in the striatum between 8 weeks and 3 years after gene transfer survival time. In the 8-week animals, the distribution of the AADC+ cells was dispersed and heterogeneous, whereas in the 3-year animals it was widespread and homogenous. Confocal analysis demonstrated that approximately 85% of the AADC+ cells were neuronal nuclei immunoreactive.

One potential strategy for gene therapy of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the local production of dopamine (DA) in the striatum induced by restoring DA-synthesizing enzymes. In addition to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase (AADC), GTP cyclohydrolase I (GCH) is necessary for efficient DA production. Using adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, we previously demonstrated that expression of these three enzymes in the striatum resulted in long-term behavioral recovery in rat models of PD. We here extend the preclinical exploration to primate models of PD. Mixtures of three separate AAV vectors expressing TH, AADC, and GCH, respectively, were stereotaxically injected into the unilateral putamen of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated monkeys. Coexpression of the enzymes in the unilateral putamen resulted in remarkable improvement in manual dexterity on the contralateral to the AAV-TH/-AADC/-GCH-injected side. Behavioral recovery persisted during the observation period (four monkeys: 48 days, 65 days, 50 days, and >10 months, each). TH-immunoreactive (TH-IR), AADC-IR, and GCH-IR cells were present in a large region of the putamen. Microdialysis demonstrated that concentrations of DA in the AAV-TH/-AADC/-GCH-injected putamen were increased compared with the control side. Our results show that AAV vectors efficiently introduce DA-synthesizing enzyme genes into the striatum of primates with restoration of motor functions. This triple transduction method may offer a potential therapeutic strategy for PD.

In animal models of Parkinson's disease, gene transfer of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) leads to an increase in the capacity of the striatum to decarboxylate exogenous L-DOPA. However, the functional effects of enhanced L-DOPA to dopamine conversion have not been explored. Here, we show that following adeno-associated virus (AAV)-AADC transduction, the transgenic AADC is able to decarboxylate exogenous L-DOPA more efficiently so that a dose of L-DOPA ineffective before gene transfer elicits a motor asymmetry (rotational behavior) following gene transfer. Furthermore, rotation scores showed a strong correlation with AADC activity in the lesioned striatum, thus allowing for behavioral screening of successful gene transfer in the brain. In animals receiving AAV2-AADC, dopamine production was restored to 50% of normal levels 12 weeks after the infusion. Microdialysis experiments demonstrated an in vivo enhanced conversion of L-DOPA to dopamine, but no storage capacity as dopamine was released to the extracellular space in a continuous, nonregulated fashion. In addition to the potential clinical benefit of improving decarboxylation efficiency in Parkinson's disease, our approach may be relevant for the treatment of AADC deficiency, a rare, autosomal recessive disorder causing a severe movement disorder and progressive cognitive impairment.

Using an approach that combines gene therapy with aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) gene and a pro-drug (l-dopa), dopamine, the neurotransmitter involved in Parkinson's disease, can be synthesized and regulated. Striatal neurons infected with the AADC gene by an adeno-associated viral vector can convert peripheral l-dopa to dopamine and may therefore provide a buffer for unmetabolized l-dopa. This approach to treating Parkinson's disease may reduce the need for l-dopa/carbidopa, thus providing a better clinical response with fewer side effects. In addition, the imbalance in dopamine production between the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic systems can be corrected by using AADC gene delivery to the striatum. We have also demonstrated that a fundamental obstacle in the gene therapy approach to the central nervous system, i.e., the ability to deliver viral vectors in sufficient quantities to the whole brain, can be overcome by using convection-enhanced delivery. Finally, this study demonstrates that positron emission tomography and the AADC tracer, 6-[(18)F]fluoro-l-m-tyrosine, can be used to monitor gene therapy in vivo. Our therapeutic approach has the potential to restore dopamine production, even late in the disease process, at levels that can be maintained during continued nigrostriatal degeneration., (Copyright 2000 Academic Press.)

Sebum secretion was measured on the forehead of 47 patients with Parkinson's disease before and after treatment with anticholinergic (biperiden), levodopa + AAID and bromocriptine, by the osmic acid technique. Another 100 patients under biperiden, levodopa + AAID or association of both, for at least one year, were also evaluated. The male parkinsonian "de novo" patients have shown greater sebum secretion than female patients. It was also concluded that biperiden failed to reduce sebum secretion rate. On the other hand, it was found that L-dopa + AAID reduces the sebum secretion (CL = casual level and SER = sebum excretion rate) on both male and female patients. Bromocriptine (10mg/day) was the second dopaminergic therapy employed in the present work. Similarly to L-dopa, this dopaminergic agonist was able to significantly reduce sebum secretion (both CL and SER) of male patients. There was a positive and significant correlation for the 50-59 years old male patients "de novo" between CL and tremor, hypokinesia, gait and posture or functional incapacity, before treatment. After a period of treatment correlation was no more found. In relation to parkinsonians under chronic treatment was found a positive and significant correlation between sebum secretion and hypokinesia. The level of sebum secretion on parkinsonian "de novo" patients before treatment was equal to parkinsonian patients under chronic treatment regardless the treatment, except for greater than or equal to 60 years old parkinsonians who have shown CL and SER higher than "de novo" parkinsonian patients with the same age but without treatment. The treatment with L-dopa + AAID significantly decreased both CL and SER of "de novo" parkinsonian patients.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)