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In Hindustani classical music, the tabla plays an important role as a rhythmic backbone and accompaniment. In applications like computer-based music analysis, learning singing, and learning musical instruments, tabla stroke transcription, $t\bar{a}la$ identification, and generation are crucial. This paper proposes a comprehensive system aimed at addressing these challenges. For tabla stroke transcription, we propose a novel approach based on model-agnostic meta-learning (MAML) that facilitates the accurate identification of tabla strokes using minimal data. Leveraging these transcriptions, the system introduces two novel $t\bar{a}la$ identification methods based on the sequence analysis of tabla strokes. \par Furthermore, the paper proposes a framework for $t\bar{a}la$ generation to bridge traditional and modern learning methods. This framework utilizes finite state transducers (FST) and linear time-invariant (LTI) filters to generate $t\bar{a}las$ with real-time tempo control through user interaction, enhancing practice sessions and musical education. Experimental evaluations on tabla solo and concert datasets demonstrate the system's exceptional performance on real-world data and its ability to outperform existing methods. Additionally, the proposed $t\bar{a}la$ identification methods surpass state-of-the-art techniques. The contributions of this paper include a combined approach to tabla stroke transcription, innovative $t\bar{a}la$ identification techniques, and a robust framework for $t\bar{a}la$ generation that handles the rhythmic complexities of Hindustani music.

The task of Raga Identification is a very popular research problem in Music Information Retrieval. Few studies that have explored this task employed various approaches, such as signal processing, Machine Learning (ML) methods, and more recently Deep Learning (DL) based methods. However, a key question remains unanswered in all of these works: do these ML/DL methods learn and interpret Ragas in a manner similar to human experts? Besides, a significant roadblock in this research is the unavailability of ample supply of rich, labeled datasets, which drives these ML/DL based methods. In this paper, we introduce "Prasarbharti Indian Music" version-1 (PIM-v1), a novel dataset comprising of 191 hours of meticulously labeled Hindustani Classical Music (HCM) recordings, which is the largest labeled dataset for HCM recordings to the best of our knowledge. Our approach involves conducting ablation studies to find the benchmark classification model for Automatic Raga Identification (ARI) using PIM-v1 dataset. We achieve a chunk-wise f1-score of 0.89 for a subset of 12 Raga classes. Subsequently, we employ model explainability techniques to evaluate the classifier's predictions, aiming to ascertain whether they align with human understanding of Ragas or are driven by arbitrary patterns. We validate the correctness of model's predictions by comparing the explanations given by two ExAI models with human expert annotations. Following this, we analyze explanations for individual test examples to understand the role of regions highlighted by explanations in correct or incorrect predictions made by the model.

We study the problem of robust multivariate polynomial regression: let $p\colon\mathbb{R}^n\to\mathbb{R}$ be an unknown $n$-variate polynomial of degree at most $d$ in each variable. We are given as input a set of random samples $(\mathbf{x}_i,y_i) \in [-1,1]^n \times \mathbb{R}$ that are noisy versions of $(\mathbf{x}_i,p(\mathbf{x}_i))$. More precisely, each $\mathbf{x}_i$ is sampled independently from some distribution $\chi$ on $[-1,1]^n$, and for each $i$ independently, $y_i$ is arbitrary (i.e., an outlier) with probability at most $\rho < 1/2$, and otherwise satisfies $|y_i-p(\mathbf{x}_i)|\leq\sigma$. The goal is to output a polynomial $\hat{p}$, of degree at most $d$ in each variable, within an $\ell_\infty$-distance of at most $O(\sigma)$ from $p$. Kane, Karmalkar, and Price [FOCS'17] solved this problem for $n=1$. We generalize their results to the $n$-variate setting, showing an algorithm that achieves a sample complexity of $O_n(d^n\log d)$, where the hidden constant depends on $n$, if $\chi$ is the $n$-dimensional Chebyshev distribution. The sample complexity is $O_n(d^{2n}\log d)$, if the samples are drawn from the uniform distribution instead. The approximation error is guaranteed to be at most $O(\sigma)$, and the run-time depends on $\log(1/\sigma)$. In the setting where each $\mathbf{x}_i$ and $y_i$ are known up to $N$ bits of precision, the run-time's dependence on $N$ is linear. We also show that our sample complexities are optimal in terms of $d^n$. Furthermore, we show that it is possible to have the run-time be independent of $1/\sigma$, at the cost of a higher sample complexity.

Extraction of predominant pitch from polyphonic audio is one of the fundamental tasks in the field of music information retrieval and computational musicology. To accomplish this task using machine learning, a large amount of labeled audio data is required to train the model. However, a classical model pre-trained on data from one domain (source), e.g., songs of a particular singer or genre, may not perform comparatively well in extracting melody from other domains (target). The performance of such models can be boosted by adapting the model using very little annotated data from the target domain. In this work, we propose an efficient interactive melody adaptation method. Our method selects the regions in the target audio that require human annotation using a confidence criterion based on normalized true class probability. The annotations are used by the model to adapt itself to the target domain using meta-learning. Our method also provides a novel meta-learning approach that handles class imbalance, i.e., a few representative samples from a few classes are available for adaptation in the target domain. Experimental results show that the proposed method outperforms other adaptive melody extraction baselines. The proposed method is model-agnostic and hence can be applied to other non-adaptive melody extraction models to boost their performance. Also, we released a Hindustani Alankaar and Raga (HAR) dataset containing 523 audio files of about 6.86 hours of duration intended for singing melody extraction tasks.

Deep generative models complement Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo methods for efficiently sampling from high-dimensional distributions. Among these methods, explicit generators, such as Normalising Flows (NFs), in combination with the Metropolis Hastings algorithm have been extensively applied to get unbiased samples from target distributions. We systematically study central problems in conditional NFs, such as high variance, mode collapse and data efficiency. We propose adversarial training for NFs to ameliorate these problems. Experiments are conducted with low-dimensional synthetic datasets and XY spin models in two spatial dimensions., Comment: 29 pages, submitted to Scipost Physics

Confidence estimation of predictions from an End-to-End (E2E) Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) model benefits ASR's downstream and upstream tasks. Class-probability-based confidence scores do not accurately represent the quality of overconfident ASR predictions. An ancillary Confidence Estimation Model (CEM) calibrates the predictions. State-of-the-art (SOTA) solutions use binary target scores for CEM training. However, the binary labels do not reveal the granular information of predicted words, such as temporal alignment between reference and hypothesis and whether the predicted word is entirely incorrect or contains spelling errors. Addressing this issue, we propose a novel Temporal-Lexeme Similarity (TeLeS) confidence score to train CEM. To address the data imbalance of target scores while training CEM, we use shrinkage loss to focus on hard-to-learn data points and minimise the impact of easily learned data points. We conduct experiments with ASR models trained in three languages, namely Hindi, Tamil, and Kannada, with varying training data sizes. Experiments show that TeLeS generalises well across domains. To demonstrate the applicability of the proposed method, we formulate a TeLeS-based Acquisition (TeLeS-A) function for sampling uncertainty in active learning. We observe a significant reduction in the Word Error Rate (WER) as compared to SOTA methods., Comment: Submitted to IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing

Boltzmann distributions over lattices are pervasive in Computational Physics. Sampling them becomes increasingly difficult with increasing lattice-size, especially near critical regions, e.g., phase transitions in statistical systems and continuum limits in lattice field theory. Machine learning-based methods, such as normalizing flows, have demonstrated the ability to alleviate these issues for small lattices. However, scaling to large lattices is a major challenge. We present a novel approach called Parallelizable Block Metropolis-within-Gibbs (PBMG) for generating samples for any lattice model. It factorizes the joint distribution of the lattice into local parametric kernels, thereby allowing efficient sampling of very large lattices. We validate our approach on the XY model and the Scalar {\phi}^4 theory. PBMG achieves high acceptance rates and less correlated samples, and the observable statistics estimated from the samples match the ground truth. Moreover, PBMG significantly speeds up inference for large lattices as compared to HMC and plain MCMC algorithms., Comment: 1. Added Computational Cost Analysis 2. Corrected errors in experiments 3. Corrected typos

Sampling topological quantities in the Monte Carlo simulation of Lattice Gauge Theory becomes challenging as we approach the continuum limit of the theory. In this work, we introduce a Conditional Normalizing Flow (C-NF) model to sample U(1) gauge theory in two dimensions, aiming to mitigate the impact of topological freezing when dealing with smaller values of the U(1) bare coupling. To train the conditional flow model, we utilize samples generated by Hybrid Monte Carlo (HMC) method, ensuring that the autocorrelation in topological quantities remains low. Subsequently, we employ the trained model to interpolate the coupling parameter to values where training was not performed. We thoroughly examine the quality of the model in this region and generate uncorrelated samples, significantly reducing the occurrence of topological freezing. Furthermore, we propose a re-trainable approach that utilizes the model's own samples to enhance the generalization capability of the conditional model. This method enables sampling for coupling values that are far beyond the initial training region, expanding the applicability of the model., Comment: 1. Comments: page 4, added a section on Mode collapse in U(1) Gauge Theory. 2. Comments: page 11, added a section in appendix

Two party differential privacy allows two parties who do not trust each other, to come together and perform a joint analysis on their data whilst maintaining individual-level privacy. We show that any efficient, computationally differentially private protocol that has black-box access to key agreement (and nothing stronger), is also an efficient, information-theoretically differentially private protocol. In other words, the existence of efficient key agreement protocols is insufficient for efficient, computationally differentially private protocols. In doing so, we make progress in answering an open question posed by Vadhan about the minimal computational assumption needed for computational differential privacy. Combined with the information-theoretic lower bound due to McGregor, Mironov, Pitassi, Reingold, Talwar, and Vadhan in [FOCS'10], we show that there is no fully black-box reduction from efficient, computationally differentially private protocols for computing the Hamming distance (or equivalently inner product over the integers) on $n$ bits, with additive error lower than $O\left(\frac{\sqrt{n}}{e^{\epsilon}\log(n)}\right)$, to key agreement. This complements the result by Haitner, Mazor, Silbak, and Tsfadia in [STOC'22], which showed that computing the Hamming distance implies key agreement. We conclude that key agreement is \emph{strictly} weaker than computational differential privacy for computing the inner product, thereby answering their open question on whether key agreement is sufficient., Comment: A key step in relating the probability that can be computed by the PSPACE algorithm to the statistical distinguishing probability is missing and not yet shown. Our arguments in this work so far have not yet been able to show this step. Thus the final conclusion that key agreement is black-box insufficient for CDP is not yet proven

This paper considers the problem of testing the maximum in-degree of the Bayes net underlying an unknown probability distribution $P$ over $\{0,1\}^n$, given sample access to $P$. We show that the sample complexity of the problem is $\tilde{\Theta}(2^{n/2}/\varepsilon^2)$. Our algorithm relies on a testing-by-learning framework, previously used to obtain sample-optimal testers; in order to apply this framework, we develop new algorithms for ``near-proper'' learning of Bayes nets, and high-probability learning under $\chi^2$ divergence, which are of independent interest.

Audio fingerprinting systems must efficiently and robustly identify query snippets in an extensive database. To this end, state-of-the-art systems use deep learning to generate compact audio fingerprints. These systems deploy indexing methods, which quantize fingerprints to hash codes in an unsupervised manner to expedite the search. However, these methods generate imbalanced hash codes, leading to their suboptimal performance. Therefore, we propose a self-supervised learning framework to compute fingerprints and balanced hash codes in an end-to-end manner to achieve both fast and accurate retrieval performance. We model hash codes as a balanced clustering process, which we regard as an instance of the optimal transport problem. Experimental results indicate that the proposed approach improves retrieval efficiency while preserving high accuracy, particularly at high distortion levels, compared to the competing methods. Moreover, our system is efficient and scalable in computational load and memory storage., Comment: We need to rewrite the subsection 'Efficiency' section under section 4 to make it more easy to follow for the readers and appreciate our results

Event detection improves when events are captured by two different modalities rather than just one. But to train detection systems on multiple modalities is challenging, in particular when there is abundance of unlabelled data but limited amounts of labeled data. We develop a novel self-supervised learning technique for multi-modal data that learns (hidden) correlations between simultaneously recorded microphone (sound) signals and accelerometer (body vibration) signals. The key objective of this work is to learn useful embeddings associated with high performance in downstream event detection tasks when labeled data is scarce and the audio events of interest (songbird vocalizations) are sparse. We base our approach on deep canonical correlation analysis (DCCA) that suffers from event sparseness. We overcome the sparseness of positive labels by first learning a data sampling model from the labelled data and by applying DCCA on the output it produces. This method that we term balanced DCCA (b-DCCA) improves the performance of the unsupervised embeddings on the downstream supervised audio detection task compared to classsical DCCA. Because data labels are frequently imbalanced, our method might be of broad utility in low-resource scenarios.

Extraction of the predominant pitch from polyphonic audio is one of the fundamental tasks in the field of music information retrieval and computational musicology. To accomplish this task using machine learning, a large amount of labeled audio data is required to train the model that predicts the pitch contour. But a classical model pre-trained on data from one domain (source), e.g, songs of a particular singer or genre, may not perform comparatively well in extracting melody from other domains (target). The performance of such models can be boosted by adapting the model using some annotated data in the target domain. In this work, we study various adaptation techniques applied to machine learning models for polyphonic melody extraction. Experimental results show that meta-learning-based adaptation performs better than simple fine-tuning. In addition to this, we find that this method outperforms the existing state-of-the-art non-adaptive polyphonic melody extraction algorithms., Comment: Want to withdraw this paper because few concepts of domain adaptation are not clear in the paper

An ideal audio retrieval system efficiently and robustly recognizes a short query snippet from an extensive database. However, the performance of well-known audio fingerprinting systems falls short at high signal distortion levels. This paper presents an audio retrieval system that generates noise and reverberation robust audio fingerprints using the contrastive learning framework. Using these fingerprints, the method performs a comprehensive search to identify the query audio and precisely estimate its timestamp in the reference audio. Our framework involves training a CNN to maximize the similarity between pairs of embeddings extracted from clean audio and its corresponding distorted and time-shifted version. We employ a channel-wise spectral-temporal attention mechanism to better discriminate the audio by giving more weight to the salient spectral-temporal patches in the signal. Experimental results indicate that our system is efficient in computation and memory usage while being more accurate, particularly at higher distortion levels, than competing state-of-the-art systems and scalable to a larger database.

Air quality monitoring is becoming an essential task with rising awareness about air quality. Low cost air quality sensors are easy to deploy but are not as reliable as the costly and bulky reference monitors. The low quality sensors can be calibrated against the reference monitors with the help of deep learning. In this paper, we translate the task of sensor calibration into a semi-supervised domain adaptation problem and propose a novel solution for the same. The problem is challenging because it is a regression problem with covariate shift and label gap. We use histogram loss instead of mean squared or mean absolute error, which is commonly used for regression, and find it useful against covariate shift. To handle the label gap, we propose weighting of samples for adversarial entropy optimization. In experimental evaluations, the proposed scheme outperforms many competitive baselines, which are based on semi-supervised and supervised domain adaptation, in terms of R2 score and mean absolute error. Ablation studies show the relevance of each proposed component in the entire scheme., Comment: submitted to IEEE Trans. on Neural Networks and Learning Systems as a regular article

The cost of Monte Carlo sampling of lattice configurations is very high in the critical region of lattice field theory due to the high correlation between the samples. This paper suggests a Conditional Normalizing Flow (C-NF) model for sampling lattice configurations in the critical region to solve the problem of critical slowing down. We train the C-NF model using samples generated by Hybrid Monte Carlo (HMC) in non-critical regions with low simulation costs. The trained C-NF model is employed in the critical region to build a Markov chain of lattice samples with negligible autocorrelation. The C-NF model is used for both interpolation and extrapolation to the critical region of lattice theory. Our proposed method is assessed using the 1+1-dimensional scalar $\phi^4$ theory. This approach enables the construction of lattice ensembles for many parameter values in the critical region, which reduces simulation costs by avoiding the critical slowing down.

We study the problem of testing whether a function $f: \mathbb{R}^n \to \mathbb{R}$ is a polynomial of degree at most $d$ in the \emph{distribution-free} testing model. Here, the distance between functions is measured with respect to an unknown distribution $\mathcal{D}$ over $\mathbb{R}^n$ from which we can draw samples. In contrast to previous work, we do not assume that $\mathcal{D}$ has finite support. We design a tester that given query access to $f$, and sample access to $\mathcal{D}$, makes $(d/\varepsilon)^{O(1)}$ many queries to $f$, accepts with probability $1$ if $f$ is a polynomial of degree $d$, and rejects with probability at least $2/3$ if every degree-$d$ polynomial $P$ disagrees with $f$ on a set of mass at least $\varepsilon$ with respect to $\mathcal{D}$. Our result also holds under mild assumptions when we receive only a polynomial number of bits of precision for each query to $f$, or when $f$ can only be queried on rational points representable using a logarithmic number of bits. Along the way, we prove a new stability theorem for multivariate polynomials that may be of independent interest.

This paper addresses the task of performing robust and reliable time-delay estimation in audio-signals in noisy and reverberating environments. In contrast to the popular signal processing based methods, this paper proposes machine learning based method, i.e., a semi-causal convolutional neural network consisting of a set of causal and anti-causal layers with a novel correlation-based objective function. The causality in the network ensures non-leakage of representations from future time-intervals and the proposed loss function makes the network generate sequences with high correlation at the actual time delay. The proposed approach is also intrinsically interpretable as it does not lose time information. Even a shallow convolution network is able to capture local patterns in sequences, while also correlating them globally. SyncNet outperforms other classical approaches in estimating mutual time delays for different types of audio signals including pulse, speech and musical beats., Comment: Submitted to INTERSPEECH 2022 conference

In lattice field theory, Monte Carlo simulation algorithms get highly affected by critical slowing down in the critical region, where autocorrelation time increases rapidly. Hence the cost of generation of lattice configurations near the critical region increases sharply. In this paper, we use a Conditional Generative Adversarial Network (C-GAN) for sampling lattice configurations. We train the C-GAN on the dataset consisting of Hybrid Monte Carlo (HMC) samples in regions away from the critical region, i.e., in the regions where the HMC simulation cost is not so high. Then we use the trained C-GAN model to generate independent samples in the critical region. Thus, the overall computational cost is reduced. We test our approach for Gross-Neveu model in 1+1 dimension. We find that the observable distributions obtained from the proposed C-GAN model match with those obtained from HMC simulations, while circumventing the problem of critical slowing down., Comment: minor corrections, version published in the journal

Low-cost particulate matter sensors are transforming air quality monitoring because they have lower costs and greater mobility as compared to reference monitors. Calibration of these low-cost sensors requires training data from co-deployed reference monitors. Machine Learning based calibration gives better performance than conventional techniques, but requires a large amount of training data from the sensor, to be calibrated, co-deployed with a reference monitor. In this work, we propose novel transfer learning methods for quick calibration of sensors with minimal co-deployment with reference monitors. Transfer learning utilizes a large amount of data from other sensors along with a limited amount of data from the target sensor. Our extensive experimentation finds the proposed Model-Agnostic- Meta-Learning (MAML) based transfer learning method to be the most effective over other competitive baselines., Comment: 3+1 pages, submitted to IEEE sensors conference 2021

A prerequisite is anything that you need to know or understand first before attempting to learn or understand something new. In the current work, we present a method of finding prerequisite relations between concepts using related textbooks. Previous researchers have focused on finding these relations using Wikipedia link structure through unsupervised and supervised learning approaches. In the current work, we have proposed two methods, one is statistical method and another is learning-based method. We mine the rich and structured knowledge available in the textbooks to find the content for those concepts and the order in which they are discussed. Using this information, proposed statistical method estimates explicit as well as implicit prerequisite relations between concepts. During experiments, we have found performance of proposed statistical method is better than the popular RefD method, which uses Wikipedia link structure. And proposed learning-based method has shown a significant increase in the efficiency of supervised learning method when compared with graph and text-based learning-based approaches.

Recently, generative machine-learning models have gained popularity in physics, driven by the goal of improving the efficiency of Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques and of exploring their potential in capturing experimental data distributions. Motivated by their ability to generate images that look realistic to the human eye, we here study generative adversarial networks (GANs) as tools to learn the distribution of spin configurations and to generate samples, conditioned on external tuning parameters, such as temperature. We propose ways to efficiently represent the physical states, e.g., by exploiting symmetries, and to minimize the correlations between generated samples. We present a detailed evaluation of the various modifications, using the two-dimensional XY model as an example, and find considerable improvements in our proposed implicit generative model. It is also shown that the model can reliably generate samples in the vicinity of the phase transition, even when it has not been trained in the critical region. On top of using the samples generated by the model to capture the phase transition via evaluation of observables, we show how the model itself can be employed as an unsupervised indicator of transitions, by constructing measures of the model's susceptibility to changes in tuning parameters., Comment: 15 pages, 4 figures, 3 tables

A control theoretic approach is presented in this paper for both batch and instantaneous updates of weights in feed-forward neural networks. The popular Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation has been used to generate an optimal weight update law. The remarkable contribution in this paper is that closed form solutions for both optimal cost and weight update can be achieved for any feed-forward network using HJB equation in a simple yet elegant manner. The proposed approach has been compared with some of the existing best performing learning algorithms. It is found as expected that the proposed approach is faster in convergence in terms of computational time. Some of the benchmark test data such as 8-bit parity, breast cancer and credit approval, as well as 2D Gabor function have been used to validate our claims. The paper also discusses issues related to global optimization. The limitations of popular deterministic weight update laws are critiqued and the possibility of global optimization using HJB formulation is discussed. It is hoped that the proposed algorithm will bring in a lot of interest in researchers working in developing fast learning algorithms and global optimization., Comment: 9 pages, journal