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High-risk stage II colon cancer is defined in European and American guidelines as the presence of at least one of the following high-risk factors: T4 stage, tumor differentiation grade 3, bowel obs...

This paper presents E-band 4 and 16 element receive (RX) and transmit (TX) phase shifter ICs for a scalable RF beamforming architecture. The chips are fabricated in an 0.13-µm SiGe BiCMOS technology. The TX/RX vector-modulator based phase shifters have an 8-bit resolution. Based on on-wafer measurements at 75 GHz, the 4-element RX phased-array chip achieves a single channel measured maximum gain of 18 dB for the 0 to 360 degree phase range with a simulated noise figure of around 10 dB. The 4-element TX has a single channel measured maximum gain of 16 dB for the full phase range including an on-chip power divider with a simulated 1-dB output compression point of -0.5 dBm. The 16-channel beamforming chips are based on the 4-channel sub-arrays with on-chip power splitting/combining. The power consumption for a single RX and TX phase shifter channel is 115 and 142 mW, respectively.

This paper presents a digitally controlled vector modulator integrated circuit aimed for millimeter wave phased array systems. The vector modulator operates over 60-100 GHz range covering 360 degree phase and over 10 dB gain control ranges. The maximum gain of 35.6 dB is achieved at 96.8 GHz. The chip is processed in 0.13 μm silicon germanium technology. Size of the chip including the pads is 2.1 × 0.7 mm2 from which the vector modulator core occupies 0.45 × 0.30 mm2.

To analyze the results of abdominoperineal excisions (APE) for locally advanced rectal cancer at our institution before and after the adoption of extralevator abdominoperineal excision (ELAPE) with a special reference to long-term survival. A retrospective cohort study conducted in a tertiary referral center. All consecutive patients operated for locally advanced (TNM classification T3–4) rectal cancer with APE in 2004–2009 were compared to patients with similar tumors operated with ELAPE in 2009–2016. Forty-two ELAPE and 27 APE patients were included. Circumferential resection margin (CRM) was less than 1 mm (R1-resection) in 10 (24%) of ELAPE patients and 11 (41%) of APE patients (p = 0.1358). Intraoperative perforation (IOP) occurred in 4 (10%) patients and 6 (22%) patients in ELAPE and APE groups, respectively (p = 0.1336). There were 3 (7%) local recurrences (LRs) in ELAPE group and 5 (19%) in APE (p = 0.2473). There were no statistical differences in adverse events, overall survival, or disease-free survival between ELAPE and APE groups. We found a non-significant tendency to lower rates of IOP and positive CRM as well as lower rate of LR in the ELAPE group. Long-term survival and adverse events did not differ between the groups. ELAPE is beneficial for the surgeon in offering better vicinity to the perineal area and better work ergonomics. These technical aspects and the clinically very important tendency to lower rate of LR support the use of ELAPE technique in spite of the lack of survival benefit.

Background: Most survival data in colorectal cancer (CRC) is derived from clinical trials or register-based studies. Hospital Biobanks, linked with hospital electronic records, could serve as a data-gathering method based on consecutively collected tumor samples. The aim of this Biobank study was to analyze survival of colorectal patients diagnosed and treated in a single-center university hospital over a period of 12 years, and to evaluate factors contributing to outcome.Material and methods: A total of 1777 patients with CRC treated during 2001-2012 were identified from the Auria Biobank, Turku, Finland. Longitudinal clinical information was collected from various hospital electronic records and date and cause of death obtained from Statistics Finland.Results: Cancer-specific, overall and disease-free survival was higher in patients diagnosed during 2004-2008 as compared with patients diagnosed in 2001-2003. Further improvement was not seen during years 2009-2012. Potential factors contributing to the improvement were introduction of multidisciplinary meetings, centralization of rectal cancer surgery, use of adjuvant chemotherapy and systematic preoperative radiotherapy of rectal cancer. The proportion of patients with stage I-IV CRC remained similar over the study period, but a marked decrease in non-metastatic rectal cancer with biopsy only (locally advanced disease) was observed. In stage I-III rectal cancer, Cox multivariate analysis suggested age, comorbidity, R1 resection, T staging and tumor grade as prognostic factors. In colon cancer, prognostic factors were age, comorbidity, gender and presence of lymph node metastases.Conclusions: Organizational changes in the treatment of CRC patients made since 2004 coincide with improved survival in CRC and a marked reduction in locally advanced rectal cancers. The clinical presentation of CRC has remained similar between 2001 and 2012.

Self-expanding metal stents (SEMSs) are increasingly used for the palliative treatment of incurable obstructing colorectal cancer. The aim of the current study was to evaluate clinical outcome, including technical and clinical success of stenting, and to identify factors associated with late complications of SEMS in palliation of incurable obstructing colorectal cancer.Between 2003 and 2010 details of 56 patients who underwent an attempt of SEMS insertion for obstructive incurable colorectal cancer at Turku University Hospital were recorded to our database prospectively and analyzed retrospectively.Technical success was achieved in 42 patients (75%) and clinical success in 39 patients (70%). Late complications related to SEMS occurred in 13 patients (31%). Ten patients (24%) needed re-intervention because of a complication: Eight ostomies, one Hartmann´s procedure due to late perforation and one re-stenting because of stent migration. Three patients with stent-related complications were treated conservatively. Chemotherapy and prolonged survival were risk factors for SEMS-related late complications and re-intervention.SEMS insertion is a feasible procedure for the palliative treatment of obstructing colorectal cancer in patients with severe comorbidities and short life expectancy. However, for patients who are candidates for chemotherapy and have a longer life expectancy, other treatment options such as palliative tumor resection should also be considered.

The organization of colorectal cancer patient treatment, the pathway, is an important component of the quality of care of a large patient group as nearly 3000 colorectal cancer patients are diagnosed and treated annually in Finland. By designing and describing the whole pathway, the more streamlined approach can be made and thus improve patient care. Multidisciplinary team work between colorectal surgeons, oncologists, pathologists and radiologists is flexible team work, having been proven to improve overall treatment results. This method of working together is also a good tool for the development of the pathway to a better organized treatment.

Background and Aims: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) via three or four ports has been the standard operation for gallstone disease. Recently, the development of multichannel port devices has allowed LCs to be performed through a single fascial incision in the umbilicus. Here, we report our experiences of the adoption of the single incision laparoscopic cholecystectomy (SILC) in two small-volume community hospitals. Material and Methods: From January until July 2010, 51 consecutive patients (41 females and 10 males, the mean age 44 (21–75) years, BMI 26 (18–35)) underwent elective SILC for symptomatic gallstone disease in Salo (n = 29) and Loimaa (n = 22) hospitals. Results: Of the 51 operations, 42 (82%) were accomplished without additional troacars. Seven (14%) procedures were converted to multiple-port technique and two (4%) to open cholecystectomy. In 25 (49%) operations, transabdominal retraction sutures through the gallbladder were used to maintain a good view of the triangle of Calot. The mean operative time was 74 (31–155) min. No major intraoperative complications occurred. The mean hospital stay was 0.6 (0–3) days. During a mean follow up of 4 (1–7) months, five (10%) patients had wound infection, and one (2%) had hematoma and prolonged pain in the insertion site of the retraction suture. One (2%) patient was reoperated for continuous pain in umbilical wound without findings at operation but with good results. One (2%) patient had subphrenic abscess seven months postoperatively. Conclusions: Our initial experiences indicate that SILC can be adopted without major complications in small-volume hospitals but the rate of wound infections seems to increase with the introduction of SILC.

Aim Conventional outcomes such as survival, tumour recurrence and complication rates after surgery for rectal cancer have been rigorously assessed, but the importance of maintaining quality of life (QOL) after surgery for rectal cancer has received less attention. The aim of the current study was to analyse QOL and the occurrence of pelvic dysfunction after the surgical treatment of rectal cancer. Method Between May 2005 and May 2008, 150 patients with rectal cancer underwent abdominoperineal resection (APR) or anterior resection (AR). Seventy-four answered two preoperative questionnaires. At a follow up of 1 year, 65 were alive without sign of recurrence and answered the same questionnaires: (a) validated RAND 36-item health survey QOL questionnaire; and (b) self-administered disease-related questionnaire with special reference to anorectal and urogenital function. Results The postoperative general QOL was similar after surgery, and mental functioning was better (P

Background: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is today the operation of choice for symptomatic gallstone disease. Before the laparoscopic era intraoperative cholangiography (IOC) was generally considered as a fundamental step in cholecystectomy while nowadays the role of IOC is controversial: is there a need for IOC to specify anatomy of biliary tree in order to avoid bile duct injuries (BDI) and to detect possible common bile duct (CBD) stones or not? Patients and Methods: We studied retrospectively all the elective LCs done in Turku City Hospital for Surgery during the ten years (1992–2001). Cholecystectomy was performed to 1101 patients, 874 (79%) female and 227 (21%) male patients, mean age 53y (range 15–89). LC was possible in 1022 (93%) cases while 79 (7%) had to be converted to open procedure. The number and severity of bile duct injuries were recorded. The cases with endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and/or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) during the follow-up and the findings in ERCP and MRCP were recorded from patient records and radiological database. Results: IOC was performed in 32 operations (20 in LC and 12 after conversion) and CBD stones were found in seven patients. There were four primary BDIs: two CBD injuries and two minor bile leaks. During a mean follow-up of 72 months (range 36–144) ERCP was performed in 16 and MRCP in three patients. Three patients underwent both MRCP and ERCP. CBD stones were detected in ten patients and a postoperative late CBD stricture was found in one case. Conclusions: According to our data, both the incidence of BDIs (0.5%) and symptomatic postoperative CBD stones (0.9%) remain low without the routine use of IOC.

This paper presents a clock generator circuit for a high-speed analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A time-interleaved ADC requires accurate clocking for the converter fingers. The target ADC has 12 interleaved fingers each running at a speed of 166 MS/s, which corresponds to an equivalent sampling frequency of 2 GS/s. A delay-locked loop (DLL) based clock generator has been proposed to provide multiple clock signals for the converter. The DLL clock generator has been implemented with a 0.35 ?m SiGe BiCMOS process (only MOS-transistor were used in DLL) by Austria Micro Systems and it occupies a 0.6 mm2 silicon area. The measured jitter of the DLL is around 1 ps and the delay between phases can be adjusted using 1 ps precision.

A low noise 0.9 GHz FBAR clock consisting of an oscillator and divider circuit for single-sided-to-differential conversion for a high-speed interleaved pipeline A/D-converter was designed, realized with an in-house FBAR and a commercial 0.35 ?m CMOS process, and tested. The circuit showed very good jitter and phase noise performance. A temperature coefficient of ---47 ppm/K was measured.

Digital-to-analog converts utilizing neuron MOS-transistors were designed. Different DACs were implemented and characterized in order to compare various topologies. Criteria to select structures were low power, fast performance and minimal silicon area. A basic 8-bit version is implemented with only one neuron MOS-transistor and eight capacitors. The silicon area of this D/A converter is only 0.04\,{\rm mm}^{2} and the power consumption is 8.4 mW with conversion speed of 200 MS/s. An enhanced 8 and 10 bit versions utilizing neuron PMOS transistor and some extra circuitry are also proposed and tested. The silicon area of the enhanced 10 bit circuit is only 0.03\,{\rm mm}^{2} while the performance is as good as in the case of the basic version. The measured differential nonlinearity is 0.38 LSB and integral nonlinearity is 0.55 LSB for the enhanced 10 bit structure.

The purpose of this study was to study the effect of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, enalaprilat, on blood pressure and splanchnic perfusion after cardiac surgery.Sixteen patients were studied after coronary artery bypass grafting. After admission to the intensive care unit, a 30-minute baseline measurement of systemic hemodynamics, oxygen transport, and gastric tonometry was performed. In 6 of 10 patients receiving enalaprilat and in each of 6 control patients, regional (splanchnic and leg) blood flows were measured also. After the baseline measurement period, 10 patients received a 0.5 mg bolus of enalaprilat and thereafter an incremental infusion of enalaprilat up to a total dose of 10 mg (mean 8.3; range 4 to 10 mg) was continued to reduce the mean arterial pressure (MAP) to 70 to 80 mm Hg. A 30-minute measurement period was repeated 2 to 3 hours after the first measurement period. In the control group, the second measurement was performed at corresponding time points.Though MAP decreased in the enalaprilat group (enalaprilat 99 +/- 14 mm Hg v 89 +/- 21 mm Hg, P.05; control 95 +/- 13 mm Hg v82 +/- 10 mm Hg, P = NS) in only 4 of 10 patients was the targeted MAP reduction achieved. No significant changes were observed either in systemic or regional blood flows. Systemic, pulmonary, and femoral vascular resistance indices decreased significantly in both groups. Gastric-arterial PCO2 difference did not change in either groups. Angiotensin-converting enzyme activity decreased in the enalaprilat group (10.0 +/- 2.3 v 1.3 +/- 0.3 U x l(-1), P.01), but plasma renin and endothelin-1 concentrations did not change in either group.The effect of enalaprilat on blood pressure was poor and it had no beneficial effects on splanchnic circulation. Renin-angiotensin activation is not a major factor in hypertension and splanchnic perfusion after cardiac surgery.

A 16 input and 16 output channels single chip intermediate frequency range (160 MHz) analog switch matrix for personal communication satellites has been designed and processed by using a commercial 1.2 µm BiCMOS technology. The circuit has low power consumption (

To minimize energy consumption of a digital circuit, logic can be operated at sub- or near-threshold voltage. Operation at this region is challenging due to device and environment variations, and resulting performance may not be adequate to all applications. This paper presents an ASIC implementation of a 32-bit RISC CPU in 28nm CMOS with wide range of adjustable voltage/frequency from 250mV/85kHz to 750mV/135MHz. The CPU employs timing-error prevention with clock stretching to enable operation with minimal safety margins while maximizing energy efficiency at a given operating point. Measurements show 3.15pJ/cyc energy consumption at 400mV, which corresponds to 39% energy savings and 83% EDP improvement compared to operation based on static signoff timing.

Country-specific differences in bacterial antibiotic resistances cause variability in recommendations given in different countries. Mutually approved national expert and hospital-specific practices are therefore beneficial. Selection of the best prophylactic antimicrobial drug and correct timing of drug dosing are of high significance. In the light of our questionnaire survey prophylactic practices are relatively consistent in Finland. Hospitals have operation-specific recommendations on prophylaxis, but adherence to them is scarcely monitored. In fact, hospitals should invest in such monitoring systems.

In this paper the design and implementation of a delay-locked loop based temperature compensated MEMS clock is presented. The system is providing a temperature compensated 48 MHz clock signal for the range of - 40 to 85°C. The temperature compensation is achieved by a combination of initial and an autonomous background calibration. The main design guidelines have been on high integration level and minimum silicon area while maintaining a low timing jitter and power consumption. The design was implemented by utilizing Austria Micro Systems (AMS) 0.35 μm standard CMOS process technology. The implementation occupies 1.75 mm 2 of silicon area.

Background/Aims: The purpose of the present study was to analyze the appropriateness and long-term results of elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the treatment of gallstone disease in the elderly. Methods: We studied all elderly (≧75 years) patients (n = 80) who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy at our institution during the years 1992–2001. Two control groups (65–74 years and Results: There were no statistically significant differences in mean operative time (61, 65, 72 min) or conversions to open surgery (6, 11, 16%) between the age groups (Conclusion: Elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy is also a safe and feasible operation with good long-term results in the elderly.

Mechanical aspiration of intestinal contents has been utilized in colon surgery for decades without scientific proof of the benefits of the procedure. According to randomized studies performed on the subject, mechanical cleaning of the bowel before surgical operations of the colon is unnecessary and even harmful to the patient. Intestinal operations must be carried out applying careful surgical aseptic techniques and appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis, and it is recommendable to abandon the routine emptying in surgical operations of the large intestine.

Background and aims: Recent advances in surgical techniques and adjuvant treatments have decreased morbidity and mortality in patients with rectal cancer. The aim of this study was to clarify the effects of aging on the choice, feasibility and safety of various treatment modalities in patients with rectal cancer. Patients and methods: During 2003–2006, a total of 274 rectal cancers were diagnosed at Turku University Central Hospital. Patient and tumor characteristics, treatment modalities chosen, and complications were recorded, and patients were followed up prospectively for 1–3 years after treatment. Patients were then divided into two groups: under 75 (n=181) and 75 years or older (n=93) at the moment of diagnosis. Patient data in the two age groups were analysed and compared with each other. Results: Of the total of 274 patients with rectal cancer, 243 (89%) underwent surgery. The percentage of patients operated was higher (pp=0.03) in the younger (92%) than in the older group (83%). The main reasons for non-operative or palliative treatment were severe concomitant diseases and metasta-sized cancer. Preoperative radiation therapy was given more often (p

Lens opacity studies were performed using an electronic Lens Opacity Meter (Interzeag Opacity Lensmeter 701) in a population (n = 321) with ischaemic heart disease. These patients are participating in a trial targetting at the reduction of mortality and incidence of myocardial infarction using a cholesterol-lowering drug, simvastatin. A separate study to evaluate the reliability of the method showed good reproducibility. Repeated measurements after a short time-interval (2–10 days) gave statistically lower opacity values either due to a change in lens transparency or perhaps a change in pigment and cell dispersion in the acqueous caused by repeated mydriasis. Lens opacity values showed a highly significant positive correlation to age. Serum cholesterol, systolic blood pressure and smoking habits showed no significant correlations to the levels of lens opacity when adjustments for age were made.

Background: The efficacy of low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) in preventing venous thromboembolism (VTE) after surgery for colorectal cancer is well documented, but the optimal duration of postoperative thromboprophylaxis is not known. The aim of this retrospective study was to assess the occurrence of symptomatic VTE after surgery for colorectal cancer in patients in whom LMWH was continued only until hospital discharge. Methods: During 2003–2006 a total of 494 patients underwent abdominal surgery for colorectal cancer at our institution. Enoxaparin (Klexane® 40mg s.c.) prophylaxis was started 12 hours before surgery and continued once a day until hospital discharge. The median duration of thromboprophylaxis was 11 days. The follow-up data were collected retrospectively from electronic archives and analyzed up to three months after the operation. Results: Only three (0.6%) symptomatic VTEs occurred during the follow-up period. One patient presented with pulmonary embolism, while the remaining two had proximal deep-vein thrombosis. The 30-day-mortality was 1.6%. None of the deaths were obviously associated with VTE. Conclusion: LMWH given for a median of 11 days until hospital discharge seems to provide sufficient thromboprophylaxis after surgery for colorectal cancer combined with the use of graded compression stockings and early mobilization.

Self-expanding metallic stents (SEMSs) are increasingly used for the palliative treatment of inoperable colorectal cancer. The aim of the current study was to analyze the safety and efficacy of SEMS in the palliative treatment of obstructive colorectal cancer. Between 2003 and 2006, SEMS placement was attempted in 26 patients suffering from inoperable obstructive colorectal cancer. The recovery of the patients and the outcome of this treatment modality were analyzed prospectively. SEMS was successfully inserted in 19 (73%) of 26 patients. In 16 (84%) of these 19 cases, the placement of SEMS was the definitive treatment of colorectal obstruction and no additional surgical palliation was needed. There were 3 (16%) colonic perforations related to stent application. SEMS insertion seems to be an effective alternative in the palliative treatment of patients with malignant colorectal obstruction. However, perforation is a dangerous complication of the procedure.

This paper presents a study upon implementation of a nonvolatile memory with a standard CMOS process. The main emphasis is to obtain an analog, continuous value, EEPROM module. The accuracy, reliability and reproducibility performance of the different memory cells have been investigated. Different types of programming method have been tested and compared EEPROM cells have been processed with two different 0.35 μm CMOS processes and two different process runs. Measurement results show that a reliable, medium accuracy, analog EEPROM can be implemented without any process Modifications.

A low noise 0.9GHz FBAR clock consisting of an oscillator and divider circuit for single sided-to-differential conversion for high-speed A/D-converter was designed, realized with an in-house FBAR and a commercial 0.35 /spl mu/m CMOS process, and tested. The circuit showed very good jitter and phase noise performance.

This paper presents a clock generator circuit for a high speed analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A time interleaved ADC requires an accurate clocking for the converter fingers. The target ADC has 12 interleaved fingers each running at speed of 166 MS/s which corresponds to equivalent sampling frequency of 2 GS/s. A delay-locked loop (DLL) based clock generator has been proposed to provide multiple clock signals for the converter. The DLL clock generator has been implemented with a 0.35 /spl mu/m SiGe BiCMOS process (only MOS-transistor were used in DLL) by Austria Micro Systems and it occupies 0.6 mm/sup 2/ silicon area. The measured jitter of the DLL is around 1 ps and the delay between phases can be adjusted at 1 ps accuracy.

Adhesion to the intestinal mucosa is one of the main selection criteria for probiotics. The influence of the endogenous intestinal microbiota on this adhesion has been little investigated. Therefore, the adhesion of five selected probiotic strains to human intestinal mucus with an endogenous microbiota and with a reduced microbiota was assessed. Of the five tested strains, two were found to exhibit an increased adhesion to intestinal mucus with a reduced microbiota. These results suggest that the endogenous mucosal microbiota may only slightly affect the initial adhesion of selected probiotics to intestinal mucus. Key words: probiotic, intestinal mucus, mucosal microbiota, adhesion.

This article describes the implementation of a solid-state memcapacitor based on combination of a memristor and traditional metal-insulator-metal capacitor. A device with an area of 5µm * 5µm has been fabricated and tested. The structure has been simulated and analyzed using circuit equivalents with parameters obtained from measurements. The memristor is represented by a sinh(·)-type model. The performance of the memcapacitor is discussed, and some methods to improve it are proposed.

The neuron MOS transistor is a recently discovered device which is capable of executing a weighted sum calculation of multiple input signals and threshold operation based on the result of summation, thereby simulating the function of biological neurons. A comprehensive set of neuron test transistors has been designed, where a number of input gates are coupled capacitively to a floating gate, which controls the channel current. Integrated circuits for neural network applications have also been designed, based on the neuron MOS transistors. These circuits include neuron CMOS inverters and A/D and D/A converters. To increase the accuracy of the neuron MOSFET structures, calibration techniques are proposed and tested. All the test structures and circuits are implemented by using a standard 0.8 /spl mu/m double-polysilicon CMOS technology. Attention was paid to saving the layout area and reducing power consumption.

Background As a predominant beta-adrenergic agonist, dobutamine may modify blood flow distribution and increase metabolic demands. The authors investigated the effect of a dobutamine-induced increase in cardiac output on splanchnic and femoral blood flow and metabolism in patients after cardiac surgery. Methods Seventeen stable patients were randomized to receive dobutamine or placebo (n = 8 per group, one dropout). After baseline measurement for systemic, splanchnic, and femoral blood flow (by dye dilution); oxygen consumption; gastric mucosal pressure of carbon dioxide (Pco2); total and splanchnic glucose production (by stable isotope tracer dilution); and regional lactate and amino acid balance, patients received either dobutamine, at a dosage (6 microg x kg(-1)min(-1)) sufficient to increase cardiac index by at least 25%, or placebo. A second set of measurements was performed 60 min after the start of dobutamine or placebo infusion. Results Dobutamine increased cardiac index (3.0+/-0.6 to 4.4+/-1.0 l x min(-1)m(-2), mean +/- SD; P < 0.05), splanchnic blood flow (from 0.8+/-0.2 to 1.0 + 0.2 l x min(-1)m(-2); P < 0.05), femoral blood flow (from 0.2+/-0.1 to 0.3+/-0.1 l x min(-1)m(-2); P < 0.05), and the arterial-gastric mucosal Pco2 gap (from 11.4+/-9.5 to 11.9+/-8.0 mmHg; P < 0.05). Dobutamine increased systemic oxygen consumption (from 132+/-14 to 146+/-13 ml x min(-1) x m(-2); P < 0.05) but not splanchnic or femoral oxygen consumption. Splanchnic glucose production and lactate and amino acid balance did not change. Conclusion After coronary artery bypass surgery, dobutamine increased systemic and regional blood flow and decreased systemic and regional oxygen extraction. Dobutamine did not affect splanchnic glucose production or lactate or amino acid balance. This suggests that dobutamine increases splanchnic blood flow without a concomitant increase in hepatosplanchnic metabolism.

Improved structures for neuron MOSFETs, which can execute a weighted summation of multiple input signals, are proposed and tested. Both an additional polysilicon shield and a substrate biasing show good control of the turning point of the neuron MOSFET inverters fabricated using a double poly-CMOS technology. The improved accuracy is demonstrated by fabricating A/D converter circuits utilising the neuron MOSFETs.