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Physically active people and athletes always seek new dietary interventions in­cluding natural products, hoping to improve their condition and gain support, allowing them to meet their settled goals. Potential benefits of using medicinal mushrooms (ganotherapy), resulting from their proven efficacy, seem extremely promising for athletic performance. They may evoke a justified interest, especially among competitors from western countries where the tradition of using mushrooms for health reasons is virtually nonexistent. The goal of the paper is to present the current knowledge of selected medicinal mushrooms among the population involved in excessive physical exercise and the range of research in the above-mentioned domain.

Starch is extensively used in the food industry as a texture modifier, a fat substitute, and in other applications. To optimise starch functional properties for specific use, it is subjected to various modifications. High-voltage electrical discharge (HVED) treatment, as a non-thermal and rapid process, was applied in this research as a single method and in combination with phosphorylation in order to explore its potential for improving starch physicochemical properties. Maize, wheat, potato, and tapioca starches were modified, and Na5P3O10 and Na2HPO4 were used for phosphorylation. Starch gelatinisation parameters (by DSC) ; paste clarity ; and contents of amylose, damaged starch, and resistant starch were determined ; and FTIR- -ATR spectra were recorded. All modifications reduced the enthalpy of gelatinisation and decreased contents of amylose, resistant starch, and damaged starch. The effect of the HVED treatment on starch properties depended on starch type and combinations with chemicals. HVED could act as an aid in the starch phosphorylation process since the properties analysed were more effectively improved when HVED was combined with phosphorylation than by phosphorylation alone.

One of the examples of physical starch modifications is the retention of a starch suspension in water having a temperature slightly lower than the pasting temperature (annealing). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the annealing process performed at various temperatures as the first stage of starch modification. The annealed starch preparations were then esterified using acetic acid anhydride. Finally, the annealed and acetylated starch preparations were determined for their properties. The annealing of starch before acetylation triggered changes in the properties of the modified preparations. It contributed to a higher degree of starch substitution with acetic acid residues and to the increased swelling power of starch. Both these properties were also affected by the annealing temperature. The highest resistance to amylolysis was found in the case of the starch preparation annealed at 53.5 °C and acetylated. The double modification involving annealing and acetylation processes increased the onset and end pasting temperatures compared to the acetylation alone. Similar observations were made for the consistency coefficient and yield point.

This study aimed to determine the effect of “annealing” acetylated potato starch with a homogenous granule size and various degrees of substitution on the thermal pasting characteristics (DSC), resistance to amylases, rheology of the prepared pastes, swelling power and dynamics of drug release. A fraction of large granules was separated from native starch with the sedimentation method and acetylated with various doses of acetic anhydride (6.5, 13.0 or 26.0 26 cm3/100 g starch). The starch acetates were then annealed at slightly lower temperatures than their pasting temperatures. The annealing process caused an almost twofold increase in the resistance to amylolysis and a threefold increase in the swelling power of the modified starch preparations. The heat of phase transition decreased almost two times and the range of starch pasting temperatures over two times, but the pasting temperature itself increased by ca. 10 °C. The 40 g/100 g addition of the modified starch preparation decreased the rate of drug release from a hydrogel by ca. one-fourth compared to the control sample.

The aim of this research was to explore the use of a high-voltage electrical treatment (HVED) as a substitute for heating during the phosphorylation of maize starch. Starch was treated with HVED, phosphorylated with Na2HPO4 or Na5P3O10 with and without thermal treatment and phosphorylated in combination with HVED prior to and after the chemical modification. When starch was phosphorylated with Na2HPO4, HVED was more efficient in catalyzing reaction (3.89 mg P/kg for 30 min HVED in relation to 0.43 mg P/kg for thermal treatment), whereas with Na5P3O10 similar P content was achieved as with thermal treatment (0.76 P/kg for 30 min HVED in relation to 0.86 mg P/kg). The order of HVED and chemical reactions did not have a marked effect on phosphorous content. In combination with Na2HPO4, HVED pre-treatment had a more pronounced effect on the solubility and water absorption, whereas post-treatment was favoured with Na5P3O10. Mean diameter was increased by all treatments, where HVED had a marked effect. Enthalpy of gelatinization ranged from 11.76 J/g for starch treated with Na5P3O10 and 10 min-HVED to 13.58 J/g for Na5P3O10 treated sample. G′ and G″ increased after both thermally and HVED enhanced phosphorylations, with a slightly more pronounced effect of the HVED.

This study aimed to produce starch esters by roasting potato starch with apple distillery wastewater at various temperatures and aimed to determine the effects of esterification conditions on selected properties of the modified preparations. Apple distillery wastewater was concentrated, mixed with starch (30 g of dry matter per 100 g of starch), dried, and roasted at temperatures of 110, 130 or 150 &deg, C for 3 h. The resulting preparations were rinsed 30 times with a 60% ethanol solution, dried, and disintegrated. After that, the following analyses were performed: content of substituted acids (after alkaline de-esterification) with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thermal characteristics with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), swelling power and solubility in water at 80 &deg, C, color changes with a colorimeter, rheology of the pastes based on the plotted flow curves, and the pastes&rsquo, resistance to amyloglucosidase. Starch treatments with apple distillery wastewater at 130 and 150 &deg, C caused significant changes to its properties when compared to the control samples of native starch and starch roasted without wastewater, including: a lower temperature and heat of pasting, lower swelling power and solubility in water, darker color, higher resistance to amyloglucosidase, and the formation of pastes with a lower viscosity.

This study was aimed at determining the effect of acetylation degree and crosslinking of retrograded starch with adipic acid on selected rheological properties of prepared pastes and gels. The esterification of retrograded starch allowed obtaining preparations with various degrees of substitution with residues of acetic (0.7–11.2 g/100 g) and adipic acids (0.1–0.3 g/100 g). Acetylation and crosslinking caused a decrease in amylose content of the preparations (3–21 g/100 g). Solubility of the preparations in water, in a wide range of variability, was increasing along with an increasing degree of acetylation and with a decreasing degree of crosslinking (19–100 g/100 g). Values of most of the rheological coefficients determined based on the flow curves of the prepared pastes and mechanical spectra of gels (3.5

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of modifying of octenyl succinate starch with mineral elements on the stability and rheological properties of oil-in-water emulsions. Native potato starch was esterified using two levels (3% or 9%) of octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) and afterwards enriched with metal ions: magnesium, calcium and potassium. Effectiveness of the modification with metal ions was determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions formed by the modified starches were analyzed for: emulsifying capacity, droplet size distribution and rheological properties. The presence of potassium ions in OSA starches resulted in a higher stability of the emulsions. Esterification as well as modification with metals contributed to a decrease in volumetric mean diameter of oil droplets. Emulsions formed by starch esterified with OSA in the concentration of 9% and subsequently modified with magnesium, calcium and potassium ions exhibited lower values of shear stress compared to the system prepared from the non-enriched starch.

This study aimed to compare properties of retrograded starch acetates with an identical degree of substitution, but produced from raw materials of various botanical origin. Retrograded starch was produced from potato, wheat, corn, and tapioca starch, and afterwards acetylated with an acetic acid anhydride, adjusting reagent doses to achieve an identical degree of esterification of the modified preparation (2.1 g/100 g). Preparations of retrograded starch and acetylated retrograded starch differed significantly in their properties, which was due to the disparate botanical origin of starch. The highest susceptibility to acetylation was demonstrated for potato starch, and the lowest one for wheat starch. Acetylation of retrograded starch of various botanical origin increased its solubility in water, swelling power and viscosity of its pastes, as well as decreased its amylose content. Preparations of acetylated retrograded starches of disparate botanical origins may be deemed preparations of RS3/4 type resistant starch because they exhibit significant (23.5&ndash, 34.0%) resistance to the activity of amylolytic enzymes.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) and high-performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) were applied to investigate the molecular structure of starch citrate produced under various conditions. Native potato starch and retrograded starch (produced by freezing and defrosting of native potato starch in the concentration of 10 g of starch per 100 g of solution) were roasted at 100 °C with citric acid applied at doses of 10 or 20 g per 100 g starch. The NMR analyses of the produced starch citrates demonstrated that retrograded starch was characterized by greater susceptibility to esterification than the native starch, and that only starch esters were produced upon esterification conducted under the applied experimental conditions. The molecular mass (M w ) distribution profiles of diesters and products after basic de-esterification as well as the molecular mass balance enabled concluding that intermolecular crosslinking occurred between dextrins (produced during acidic hydrolysis) that were linking with each other or were attaching to high-molecular amylopectin. The study excluded explicitly the formation of crosslinks between high-molecular fractions of starch.

Summary This study was aimed at comparing selected properties of starch citrate obtained from native or retrogrades of potato starch at various temperatures (100, 130 or 160 °C) and at various doses of reactant (10, 20 or 40 g per 100 g). Higher susceptibility to esterification was demonstrated for retrograded starch, whereas the degree of esterification of the produced esters varied considerably (1.4 to 10.0 g per 100 g preparation) and was increasing along with increasing roasting temperature and dose of citric acid. The process of pasting occurred only in the esters obtained at a temperature of 100 °C, which resulted in a significant decrease in swelling power and solubility in water of the citrates produced at higher temperatures. The resultant starch citrates were characterised by significant resistance to amylolysis (ranging from 22 to 100 g per 100 g). There was observed an increase in starch resistance along with the increase in the acid dose and roasting temperature. All analysed properties of starch citrates were not correlated with the degree of esterification, but appeared to depend on the roasting, which may point to a significant effect of this factor on the mechanism of starch cross-linking with citric acid.

Water suspensions of starch (with the concentration of 8 g/100 g) were prepared in a measuring vessel of a Brabender viscograph and heated to temperatures of 74, 76.5, 79, 81.5, 84, 86.5, 89, 91.5 or 94 °C under continuous stirring. The resultant solution was cooled and frozen, and then defrosted. Thermal characteristics of re-pasting, rheological properties of produced pastes, starch solubility in water and swelling power were determined. The heating and freezing of the wheat starch suspension induced changes in its properties, with tendency and extent of these changes depending on temperature of pre-heating. The thermal characteristics of the analyzed starches revealed three peaks that corresponded to transitions proceeding during solubilization of retrograded amylopectin and retrograded amylose and solubilization of amylose–lipid complexes. Retrogradation of amylose induced by starch pre-heating followed by its freezing affected also the consistency coefficient and yield stress of the pastes formed by the analyzed starches. Values of these rheological parameters were higher at higher temperatures of pre-heating, compared to the pastes prepared from native starch, and were changing accordingly to the determined second order polynomial function. Amylose retrogradation occurring during the production of starch preparations diminished their solubility in water and increased their swelling power compared to native starch.

Aqueous starch suspensions (8 g/100 g) were prepared in a measuring flask of a Brabender viscograph and heated to temperatures of 74.0, 76.5, 79.0, 81.5, 84.0, 86.5, 89.0, 91.5 or 94.0 °C under continuous stirring. The resultant solution was cooled and frozen, and then defrosted and subjected to re-pasting in the Brabender viscograph. The heating and freezing of wheat starch suspension evoked changes in its properties, with the tendency and extent of these changes dependent on the pre-heating temperature. During re-pasting of the produced starch preparations in a Brabender viscograph, an increase occurred in particle size of the granules—and 8-fold increase in paste viscosity—compared with pastes produced from native starch. The viscosity of pastes was positively correlated with the size of formed gel sacks determined using a laser particle size analyzer. This was also found to depend on pre-heating temperature and changed according to a determined quadratic function. The strength of produced gels, measured with the oscillating–rotating viscometer, was higher than that of the gel produced from native starch and depended on the pre-heating temperature; however, these changes followed a determined quadratic function.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the maltodextrins prepared from chemically modified starches (crosslinked, stabilized, crosslinked and stabilized) on the stability and rheological properties of model oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions. Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that emulsion stability depended on hydrolysates dextrose equivalent (DE) value. Maltodextrin with the lowest degree of depolymerization effectively stabilized the dispersed system, and the effectiveness of this action depended on the maltodextrin type and concentration. Addition of distarch phosphate-based maltodextrin stabilized emulsion at the lowest applied concentration, and the least effective was maltodextrin prepared from acetylated starch. Emulsions stabilized by maltodextrins (DE 6) prepared from distarch phosphate and acetylated distarch adipate showed the predominance of the elastic properties over the viscous ones. Only emulsion stabilized by maltodextrin prepared from distarch phosphate (E1412) revealed the properties of strong gel. Additionally, the decrease in emulsions G′ and G″ moduli values, combined with an increase in the value of DE maltodextrins, was observed.

Aqueous suspensions prepared from native potato starch (with the concentration 4 g/100 g) were heated to temperatures of 59, 64, 69, 74, 79, 84, 89 or 94 °C, under continuous stirring. The resultant solutions were cooled, frozen and defrosted, and subjected to analyses. The heating and freezing of a potato starch suspension changed its properties, with the direction and extent of these changes depending on the temperature of pre-heating. The re-pasting of the produced starch preparations in a Brabender viscosimeter increased their viscosity to 50% compared to the pastes produced from native starch. The assayed viscosity of the pastes depended on the pre-heating temperature and was changing following the determined second degree polynomial function. The thermal characteristics (DSC) of the analyzed preparations revealed peaks that corresponded to transitions of native starch pasting and retrograded starch solubilization. The strength of the produced gels, determined with the use of an oscillatory-rotational rheometer, was greater than that of gels produced from native starch and depended on the pre-heating temperature, however these changes followed the determined second order polynomial function. Microscope preparations (SEM) of retrograded starch differed significantly in porosity that was also found to depend on the pre-heating temperature. Paste viscosity was positively correlated with the size of gel sacks determined with a laser particle size analyzer (LSA).

Native potato starch (NS) and retrograded starch (R - obtained via freezing and defrosting of a starch paste) were used to prepare starch acetates: NS-A and R-A, and then acetylated distarch adipates: NS-ADA and R-ADA. The chemically-modified preparations produced from retrograded starch (R-A; R-ADA) were characterized by a higher degree of esterification compared to the modified preparations produced under the same conditions from native potato starch (NS-A; NS-ADA). Starch resistance to amylolysis was observed to increase (to 30-40 g/100 g) as a result of starch retrogradation and acetylation. Starch cross-linking had a significant impact on the increased viscosity of the paste in the entire course of pasting characteristics and on the increased values of rheological coefficients determined from the equations describing flow curves. The produced preparation of acetylated retrograded starch cross-linked with adipic acid (R-ADA) may be deemed an RS3/4 preparation to be used as a food thickening agent.

The aim of the present study was to determine the impact of serial modifications of starch, including firstly starch extrusion or hydrolysis with pullulanase, followed by retrogradation (through freezing and defrosting of pastes) and acetylation (under industrial conditions), on its susceptibility to amylolysis. The method of production had a significant effect on properties of the resultant preparations, whilst the direction and extent of changes depended on the type of modification applied. In the produced starch esters, the degree of substitution, expressed by the per cent of acetylation, ranged from 3.1 to 4.4 g/100 g. The acetylation had a significant impact on contents of elements determined with the atomic emission spectrometry, as it contributed to an increased Na content and decreased contents of Ca and K. The DSC thermal characteristics enabled concluding that the modifications caused an increase in temperatures and a decrease in heat of transition (or its lack). The acetylation of retrograded starch preparations increased their solubility in water and water absorbability. The modifications were found to exert various effects on the rheological properties of pastes determined based on the Brabender's pasting characteristics and flow curves determined with the use of an oscillatory-rotating viscosimeter. All starch acetates produced were characterized by ca. 40% resistance to amylolysis.

The method of extrusion enables enrichment of snacking products with protein preparation simultaneously providing a high quality of end products. Maize semolina with particle size of 500-1250 μm was used as raw material and as additives soybean protein isolate, distillery yeast Safethanol 3035 and laboratory obtained potato protein preparation. Snacks were determined for contents of dry matter, protein, fat as well as for texture, volume weight, bulk density and sensory traits. The application of 3% and 6% additions of protein preparations in extruded snacks production was found to exert a beneficial effect on their chemical composition without deteriorating sensory characteristics. The higher, 6%, addition of proteins to extrudates turned out to significantly reduce content of fat (by 18%) and ash (by 50%), and to increase total protein content by 26%, on average, in the products examined as compared to the samples free of additives. The addition of potato protein to extrudates, especially at the higher dose (6%), significantly improved their consistency and texture, simultaneously diminishing the expansion ratio of ready products. The higher (6%) addition of yeast protein applied in the production of extrudates resulted in slight deterioration of their taste and aroma, yet had a positive effect on the structure and expansion ratio of the ready products. The extrudates produced with the addition of soybean protein were characterized by a good expansion ratio, uniform structure, irrespective of preparation dose and simultaneously demonstrated lower bulk mass as compared to the other products obtained in the experiment.

The objective of this study was to establish the effect of the concentration of a starch paste subjected to freezing on the properties of the produced retrograded starch, and to determine its susceptibility to acetylation with acetic acid anhydride. A starch paste (1, 4, 10, 18 or 30 g/100 g) was produced from native potato starch that was frozen, defrosted and dried. Al preparations of retrograded starch had the same chemical structure determined with the technique of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and diversified physical form visible on photos taken with an electron microscope (SEM). An increase in the concentration of paste, used to produce the preparations, resulted in decreased: amylose content (from 25.0 to 20.4/100 g), solubility in water (from 41.1 to 20.1/100 g), swelling power (from 45.0 to 19.3/g), and susceptibility of the preparations to the action of amyloglucosidase (from 95.4 to 83.6/100 g). The heat of phase transition of solubilisation determined with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) ranged from 3.8 to 7.1 J/g, and the initial temperature of transition was increasing from 43.4 to 49.7 °C along with an increasing concentration of the paste subjected to retrogradation. The 1–10/100 g concentration of the paste used to produce preparations was observed to increase, whereas that between 10 and 30/100 g to decrease the susceptibility to acetylation and viscosity of the prepared pastes, determined both with a Brabender viscograph and a Haake oscillating-rotational viscosimeter.

Various procedures have been used to produce preparations of retrograded starch, by subjecting it to acetylation with methods used in the food industry. The resultant starch preparations were evaluated for their degree of acetylation through titration, swelling power and solubility in water at 80 °C, and saccharification dynamics as affected by amyloglucosidase. Rheological properties of pastes and gels of native starch and modified starch preparations were characterized with the use of a sweep temperature test as a dependency of the storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) on temperature. In addition, flow curves of pastes were plotted and mechanical spectra of gels of the preparations examined were determined. These modifications had a significant effect on the preparations produced. Retrograded and acetylated starch preparations were characterized by greater solubility in water and greater swelling power, and were less susceptible to amyloglucosidase than the non-acetylated preparations. Rheological properties of the pastes and gels were affected by the methods of their production. Acetylation was found to significantly affect a decrease in the storage modulus value during heating. Pastes of the native starch and modified starch preparations were characterized by the non-Newtonian flow, shear thinning with a tendency to yield stress. In turn, the mechanical spectra demonstrated that - in the concentration applied - both native starch and modified starch preparation were forming weak gels.

This study was aimed at producing acetylated adipate of retrograded starch (ADA-R) with various degrees of substitution with functional groups and at determining the effect of esterification degree on resistance and pasting characteristics of the produced preparations. Paste was prepared from native potato starch, and afterwards frozen and defrosted. After drying and disintegration, the paste was acetylated and crosslinked using various doses of reagents. An increase in the total degree of esterification of the produced ADA-R-preparation caused an increase in its resistance to the action of amyloglucosidase. Viscosity of the paste produced from ADA-R-preparation in a wide range of acetylation degrees was increasing along with increasing crosslinking of starch. The study demonstrated that acetylated adipate of retrograded starch may be classified as a preparation of RS 3/4 type resistant starch (retrograded starch/chemically-modified starch) with good texture-forming properties. The conducted modification offers the possibility of modeling the level of resistance of the produced preparation.

Though modification of starch through acetylation is known for about 150years, it is still an object of extensive studies at various research centers worldwide. This manuscript presents an overview of literature from the last 5years concerning starch acetylation. It also describes the applied raw materials, production procedures of acetylated starch and correlations between the degree of substitution with acetyl groups and properties of the modified preparations.

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of the concentration of paste used to produce retrograded starch, and esterification degree, on selected properties of the resultant distarch adipate. Starch paste was prepared from native potato starch (1, 4, 10, 18 or 30 g/100 g), frozen, defrosted and dried. Thus produced preparations of retrograded starch were cross-linked with various doses of a cross-linking agent (0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 ml per 100 g of starch). Properties of the produced adipates depended on both the concentration of paste used to produce retrograded starch and the degree of substitution with adipic acid residues. Solubility in water and swelling power of the cross-linked preparations of retrograded starch, as well as pasting temperature and viscosity of produced pastes, all decreased along with the increasing degree of substitution with adipic acid residues.

Resistant starch (RS) is part of potato starch that is not digested in the gastrointestinal tract. RS4 is a chemically modified starch (for example by oxidation and esterification) and physically (by heating).The study was aimed at determining the effect of resistant starch on lipid metabolism and activity of hepatic enzymes in Wistar strain rats fed high-fat diets containing 15% of lard or 15% of soybean oil.Four types of diets were administered to the animals (4 groups of males, n = 32): control diet (K1) containing 15% of soybean oil; control diet (K2) containing 15% of lard as well as two groups receiving the same diets with 10% addition of resistant starch RS4 (K1S and K2S).The mean concentration of total cholesterol was lower in the group of animals fed a diet with vegetable oil (39.9 mg/dl) as compared to that reported in the group of rats fed the lard-supplemented diet (55.2 mg/dl). Compared to the control groups in both groups of animals receiving the diet supplemented with resistant starch RS4 the total cholesterol concentration in serum decreased by ca. 25% (differences were statistically significant). In groups of rats receiving oil- or lard-containing diets with the addition of the resistant starch preparation the concentration of triglycerides in serum decreased by ca. 47% and 10%, respectively.A beneficial effect of the resistant starch RS4 added to Wistar rats diets on the lipid metabolism has been shown. The concentrations of total cholesterol and triglycerides in the serum were lower and concentration of HDL-cholesterol was higher in the rats fed with the diets containing the addition of the RS4 preparation as compared to the control groups. Based on the activity of hepatic enzymes the degree of liver damage was lower in groups of rats fed with diets containing resistant starch RS4 as compared to the control groups.