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An unprecedented thunderstorm ground enhancement (TGE) event was recorded on May 23, 2023, at Aragats Mountain, the highest peak in Armenia. This event showcased a maximum flux intensity surpassing 3 million particles per minute per square meter for energies above 0.4 MeV. Distinctly, the fluence of the event was measured at approximately ≈700 particles/cm2. The comprehensive instrumentation at the Aragats research station, including a suite of spectrometers and detectors, enabled precise cross-correlation of measurements. The electron flux at energies exceeding 10 MeV was observed at roughly ≈55,000 particles per minute per square meter. Additional measurements, including cloud base heights and corona discharge detections, validated the intensity of the electric field, reaching approximately 2.1 kV/cm at elevations 50–100 m above ground level. Our observations confirm that TGE is a universal and significant atmospheric event, contributing a substantial flux of high-energy electrons to the global electrical circuit. Integrating such TGE phenomena into Earth's numerical models is imperative, considering their impact on aviation and aerospace operation safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Surface atmospheric electric field (AEF) measurements were conducted using a Kelvin water dropper equalizer by the Japan Meteorological Agency's geomagnetic observatory at Kakioka, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan, from 1929 to February 28, 2021. To obtain AEF data successive to the water dropper measurement, we independently installed the field mills at Kakioka. In this present study, we estimated the calibration coefficients based on comparisons between the water dropper and the field mills through parallel observations over 3 days. The results revealed that the new observations could be regarded as continuous data. Our new data from the field mills in this study have begun the process of being distributed in GLObal Coordination of Atmospheric Electricity Measurements (GloCAEM) as both archived and real‐time data in 1 min and 1 s samplings.

Surface atmospheric electric field (AEF) measurements were conducted using a Kelvin water dropper equalizer by the Japan Meteorological Agency's geomagnetic observatory at Kakioka, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan, from 1929 to February 28, 2021. To obtain AEF data successive to the water dropper measurement, we independently installed the field mills at Kakioka. In this present study, we estimated the calibration coefficients based on comparisons between the water dropper and the field mills through parallel observations over 3 days. The results revealed that the new observations could be regarded as continuous data. Our new data from the field mills in this study have begun the process of being distributed in GLObal Coordination of Atmospheric Electricity Measurements (GloCAEM) as both archived and real‐time data in 1 min and 1 s samplings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To advance high-energy atmospheric physics, studying atmospheric electric fields (AEF) and cosmic ray fluxes as an interconnected system is crucial. At Mt. Argats, simultaneous measurements of particle fluxes, electric fields, weather conditions, and lightning locations have significantly enhanced the validation of models that describe the charge structures of thunderclouds and the mechanics of internal electron accelerators. In 2023, observations of the five largest thunderstorm ground enhancements (TGEs) revealed electric fields exceeding 2.0 kV/cm at elevations just tens of meters above ground—potentially hazardous to rockets and aircraft during launch and charging operations. Utilizing simple yet effective monitoring equipment developed at Aragats, we can mitigate the risks posed by these high-intensity fields. The Mendeley dataset, comprising various measured parameters during thunderstorm activities, enables researchers to perform advanced correlation analysis and uncover complex relationships between these atmospheric phenomena. This study underscores the critical importance of integrated atmospheric studies for ensuring the safety of high-altitude operations and advancing atmospheric science.

The near-surface atmospheric electric field is an important parameter in disciplines such as space physics and atmospheric science. Variations in the atmospheric electric field represent the state of the global atmospheric circuit and charge distribution in the near-surface atmosphere, which is affected jointly by meteorological activities (including precipitation, wind speed, relative humidity, and lightning), geological activities (earthquakes, landslides, mudslides, etc.), and solar activities (including solar flares, geomagnetic activities, coronal mass ejections, and high-energy proton events). The atmospheric electric field's near-surface average value in a specific region during the calm period is represented by its average daily variation characteristics. This average value is important to study the fluctuations in the near-surface atmospheric electric field at different latitudes, which are caused by geological or solar activities. To realize the three-dimensional detection of the whole circle and multiple elements of the solar-terrestrial space environment, several atmospheric electric field observation stations were built under the Meridian Project at the poles and several regions in China. The present study introduces observations made at seven such stations. It mainly included observations by the field-mill-type atmospheric electric field instrument, the data format, and information on clear days during November 2021-October 2022 at the Tibet Gar Station. The average daily variation in the atmospheric electric field during this one-year period was analyzed. Finally, the comparison of the average daily atmospheric electric field curve with the standard "Carnegie curve" was discussed.

This study is concerned with little-studied negative bay-like anomalies of the atmospheric electric field close to ground that are recorded in seismic regions, provided the weather is "fair" for observations of atmospheric electricity. The results from observations of these anomalies have been summarized and analyzed; we have identified some features in their occurrence which provide evidence of a relationship to the deformation of near-ground rocks during the tectonoseismic process. We are using the theory of atmospheric electricity to discover the responsible source; this is a local negative space charge of small ions produced in the near-surface air under the influence of a negative vertical gradient of conductivity. It was found that the charge and the negative electric anomalies it generates have a deformation-emanation nature. We suggest a scheme for the generation of such anomalies; the roles of radon and thoron are discussed. It was found that thoron is occasionally more important than radon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The near-surface atmospheric electrostatic field plays a pivotal role in comprehending the global atmospheric circuit model and its influence on climate change. Prior to delving into the intricate interplay between solar activities, geological activities, and atmospheric electric field, a comprehensive examination of the diurnal fair atmospheric electric field's baseline curve within a specific region is essential. Based on the atmospheric electric field network monitoring in Yunnan Province in the year 2022, this study systematically investigated the distribution of the atmospheric electric field under both fair-weather and disturbed weather conditions at a quadrilateral array encompassing Chuxiong Station, Mouding Station, Lufeng Station, and Dali Station. The primary focus was on elucidating the variations in the daily variation curves of fair atmospheric electric fields and conducting a comparative analysis with the Carnegie curves. The possible reasons for the differences among them are also discussed in this study, but more observational evidence is required to confirm the specific causes in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Atmospheric electric fields (AEFs) have recently been proposed to link to biogeochemical processes below the Earth’s surface by means of a charge separation. Despite the potential importance of such a process, up to now we almost completely lack the relevant measurements. Here, we extend the database with 2 months of concurrent soil redox and atmospheric electric field measurements. It appears that the changes that occur in the order of days in soil redox are at periods anticorrelated with the logarithm of the positive values of the AEF. However, weather conditions might be driving the anticorrelation rather than a direct link, as the synoptic weather conditions appear to influence soil redox. Soil redox does not respond to changes in the AEF that are of shorter duration, either minutes or several hours, except in some cases of very negative AEFs or very high field strengths in the presence of moderate rainfall. In such a case, the variation in soil redox could be associated with a mechanism that transfers charge to the ground or brings ions towards the ground’s surface. To reach firmer conclusions on the effect of the AEF on soil redox, we need to extend the range of collocated soil redox and AEF measurements so that they cover at least one year.

Abstract The Earth’s electrical environment is influenced by both external and internal driving factors. Internal driving factors include the global charging current produced by lightning storms, global aerosol concentrations and cloud coverage. External factors are caused by various space weather phenomena, including changes in the Sun’s magnetic field, solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and ionization changes from high-energy particles from the Sun and galactic cosmic rays. This study focuses on the cosmic ray intensity changes observed at the OULU Station and the vertical atmospheric electric field changes observed at the Azores and Studenec stations during a solar activity event in September 2017. The results indicate that the atmospheric electric field at the two stations (Azores and Studenec) simultaneously decreased by 80% and 120% of the mean atmospheric electric field value, respectively, during the same time as the significant decrease in cosmic ray intensity. The linear correlation coefficient between the decreased atmospheric electric field measured at these two stations was 0.60, indicating a global effect from the shocks and magnetic clouds associated with coronal mass ejections on atmospheric electricity. Finally, this study describes shock waves and magnetic clouds that impede the propagation of galactic cosmic rays, resulting in a decrease in ionospheric potential and atmospheric electric field.

An electrostatic field mill (EFM) is widely used to measure the strength of electrostatic fields, the main drawback of which is the occurrence of large measurement errors (up to 15 % in the range from 0 to 1 kV/m). This paper examines the aspects of using transimpedance amplifiers (TIAs) for the tasks of converting the current received from the EFM sensor into voltage, which will make it possible to reduce the instrumental error and ensure the linearity of the atmospheric electrostatic field strength measurement. In the general case, for the functional circuits of the electrostatic field mill, which include a differential transimpedance amplifier, there is the use of two TIA circuits, which are connected in parallel. Despite the simplicity of implementation, such a configuration contains a number of disadvantages and is not optimal. In the paper, a comparative analysis of a typical circuit of a differential TIA and a circuit of an ungrounded differential transimpedance amplifier with zero voltage drop proposed by the authors is carried out. As a result of the analysis, it was established that the designed authentic circuit of the ungrounded differential transimpedance amplifier with zero voltage drop has better parameters of linearity and interference resistance, in contrast to the generally accepted one. The value of the signal-to-noise ratio for the proposed scheme improved by 42 % on average compared to the typical one. The main difference of the proposed scheme is that the stability of the amplification factor is ensured, the influence of the bias parameters of the operational amplifier is leveled, and the overall noise level is reduced. The use of the designed scheme of an ungrounded differential transimpedance amplifier with zero voltage drop could make it possible to increase the accuracy of the measurement of the electrostatic field strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

E. Williams et al. (2022, commented paper) questioned electron energy spectra derived from thunderstorm ground enhancements (TGEs) measured on Aragats; they concluded that "A more likely origin for any detected electrons at 3.2 km above sea level is Compton scattering and pair production activated by longer‐range bremsstrahlung gamma rays, themselves produced by runaway electron encounters with nuclei in the breakeven field at higher altitude." In this comment, we show that the selection criteria of "electron" TGEs unambiguously reject the assumption of the origination of TGE electrons measured on Aragats from the Compton and pair production processes. Thus, the strong accelerating electric field above the earth's surface can be significantly lower (25–150 m) than derived in the commented paper 500 m altitude. Plain Language Summary: Electron accelerators operate in the thunderous atmosphere, sending copious particles to the Earth's surface. To get inside the models of electron acceleration and multiplication by strong atmospheric fields, the critical problem is the measurement of electrons and their energies as they arrive at the earth's surface. It is rather tricky because electrons are fast attenuated in the air, and the flux of accompanied gamma rays is attenuated much less and reaches the ground in overwhelming amounts. We developed special hardware and software methods to prove electrons' existence in the vast particle fluxes reaching the ground and to measure their energies. Simulations and careful examination of the registered particle fluxes check these methods. Key Points: The contribution of the Compton scattered and pair‐production electrons to TGE flux is negligible and cannot "mimic" the TGE electron fluxThe criteria used in the energy spectrum recovery from Aragats Solar Neutron Telescope (ASNT) reliably select "electron" TGE events and reject TGE events with small electron contentIf the strong accelerating electric field terminates low above the earth's surface (25–100 m), electrons from the large RREAs reach ASNT, and their energy spectrum can be reliably recovered [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Earth's electrical environment is influenced by both external and internal driving factors. Internal driving factors include the global charging current produced by lightning storms, global aerosol concentrations and cloud coverage. External factors are caused by various space weather phenomena, including changes in the Sun's magnetic field, solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and ionization changes from high-energy particles from the Sun and galactic cosmic rays. This study focuses on the cosmic ray intensity changes observed at the OULU Station and the vertical atmospheric electric field changes observed at the Azores and Studenec stations during a solar activity event in September 2017. The results indicate that the atmospheric electric field at the two stations (Azores and Studenec) simultaneously decreased by 80% and 120% of the mean atmospheric electric field value, respectively, during the same time as the significant decrease in cosmic ray intensity. The linear correlation coefficient between the decreased atmospheric electric field measured at these two stations was 0.60, indicating a global effect from the shocks and magnetic clouds associated with coronal mass ejections on atmospheric electricity. Finally, this study describes shock waves and magnetic clouds that impede the propagation of galactic cosmic rays, resulting in a decrease in ionospheric potential and atmospheric electric field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The object of research is the process of measuring the strength of the atmospheric electrostatic field. This paper is devoted to an analytical review and comparative analysis of modern methods and instruments for measuring atmospheric electrostatic field strength. The results of scientific research and modern practical technologies, which are used to develop technical means and increase the accuracy of measuring the strength of electrostatic fields, are considered. In the work, the general functional requirements for the hardware of systems for measuring the atmospheric electrostatic field strength are formed and the main directions of research and practical tasks for its creation are defined. The design features and characteristics of existing measuring instruments are considered in detail. The advantages and disadvantages of electrometers, electrostatic field mills, microelectromechanical electrostatic field mills, and electric field imaging systems are determined given their portability, sensitivity, measuring frequency, accuracy, measurement range, linearity, and cost. The analysis of the state of modern methods and measuring instruments for the strength of the electrostatic field showed that one of the best solutions for measuring the electrostatic field strength of the atmosphere today is the use of an improved electrostatic field mill. It was determined that one of the important problems for ensuring the development of methods and means of atmospheric electrostatic field strength measuring is the need to generalize the structure of the measuring instruments and calculate its metrological characteristics. It has been established that solving the problem of increasing the accuracy of atmospheric electrostatic field strength measurement requires a comprehensive approach based on improving the design of the sensor structure of the meter, increasing the accuracy of navigation and positioning, increasing the autonomy of work, improving communication and data transmission systems, as well as ensuring high stability and reliability of work under the influence of external factors. Improving the structure and improving the characteristics of electrostatic field mills in the future will ensure the necessary accuracy, compactness, and availability for measurement and its inclusion in the automated system of atmospheric electrostatic field monitoring and forecasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fair-weather atmospheric electric field (AEF) data were analysed at the Islamabad Observatory from 2015 to 2019. The key objective is to observe the variation in atmospheric electric field with respect to different meteorological parameters and aerosol. For this purpose, the influence of meteorological parameters and temporal variation was studied. Initially, four local meteorological parameters were chosen to see the effect on the AEF. The daily variation in the AEF curve shows a single prominent peak known as the morning peak, and a very dull secondary afternoon peak is observed. Variation in the atmospheric electric field shows a positive correlation with temperature, pressure, and wind speed. On the other hand, a negative correlation is observed between the atmospheric electric field and relative humidity. The available simultaneous sampling of aerosol (Particulate Matter, PM2.5/PM10) was carried out and compared with the AEF for the four seasons of the year 2017. Generally, a rise in the AEF is observed due to an increase in PM concentration. The annual data showed a significant but weaker correlation of PM2.5/PM10 for the AEF and was found to be more season-dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gamma‐ray glows are observational evidence of relativistic electron acceleration due to the electric field in thunderclouds. However, it is yet to be understood whether such relativistic electrons contribute to the initiation of lightning discharges. To tackle this question, we started the citizen science "Thundercloud Project," where we map radiation measurements of glows from winter thunderclouds along Japan's sea coast area. We developed and deployed 58 compact gamma‐ray monitors at the end of 2021. On 30 December 2021, five monitors simultaneously detected a glow with its radiation distribution horizontally extending for 2 km. The glow terminated coinciding with a lightning flash at 04:08:34 JST, which was recorded by the two radio‐band lightning mapping systems, FALMA and DALMA. The initial discharges during the preliminary breakdown started above the glow, that is, in vicinity of the electron acceleration site. This result provides one example of possible connections between electron acceleration and lightning initiation. Plain Language Summary: Thunderstorms are natural particle accelerators. The strong electric field inside thunderclouds accelerates relativistic electrons, which emit gamma rays via interaction with the atmosphere. High‐energy photons generated in this process have been observed as radiation enhancements called gamma‐ray glows. Winter thunderclouds along the sea of Japan are an ideal target for monitoring glows because their altitudes are usually sufficiently low for the generated gamma‐ray photons to reach the ground. We started a new citizen science "Thundercloud Project" in this area, where we distributed radiation detectors to citizen supporters to observe glows and to reveal their relationship with the aerological condition and lightning discharges. On 30 December 2021, five of those sensors detected a glow from a single thundercloud. Two of them recorded a sudden termination of the glow coinciding with a lightning flash, which was monitored by our two radio mapping systems of FALMA and DALMA. The initial discharges of the flash started at a location about 1.6 km above the glow region with an unusually fast downward progression. This paper is the first report of our citizen science project. We discuss the possibility that accelerated electrons contribute to the initiation of lightning discharges. Key Points: We started the citizen science "Thundercloud Project," a multi‐point observation campaign of gamma‐ray glows from thunderstormsOn 30 December 2021, five radiation monitors detected a 2‐km‐long size gamma‐ray glow, which suddenly terminated with a lightning flashTwo radio mapping systems of lightning identified the initiation of the discharges, which started at a location above the glow region [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the system of electrohydrodynamic equations, we investigate the role of trigger-type electromagnetic factors in the generation of tornadoes and jet downbursts: perturbations of the atmospheric electric field under thunderclouds and the effect of giant dielectric permittivity of the cloud as a suspension of water microdroplets with a thin surface double electric layer. The work considers the combined influence of the tripole cloud-charge structure and the effect of the giant dielectric permittivity on the formation of tornado funnels and the occurrence of a number of related specific phenomena: a "collar" at the base of the funnel, "devil's horns" and the growth of a cascade in the form of a column of droplets and foam towards the descending tornado funnel. Other factors (unidirectional or multidirectional swirl of the center and periphery of a thundercloud, difference in the magnetic properties of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen, etc.) usually play an auxiliary role in the formation of tornado-like vortices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the data from an atmospheric electric field (AEF) meter at 500 m from the top of Canton Tower, dual-polarimetric radar in Guangzhou, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao lightning location system and ERA5 reanalysis data, this study comparatively investigates the characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) activity and the relationship between CG activity and variation features of AEF in two thunderstorms in Guangzhou on August 15 and September 23, 2020. The results show that the"local Thunderstorm"caused by local thermal instability possesses is associated with less lightning frequency and weaker precipitation, while the"systematic Thunderstorm"caused by mesoscale system possesses is associated with higher lightning frequency and short-term heavy precipitation. The lightning frequency and variation of AEF in the two thunderstorm processes display the distributions with two peaks, and the peak of AEF variability and time-frequency domain energy correspond well to the lightning outbreak stage. In the decay of "systematic Thunderstorm", AEF fluctuates greatly and slowly between the positive and negative poles for a relatively long time, showing the characteristic of End of Storm-Oscillation (EOSO). However, such a characteristic of the oscillation of AEF does not occur in the decay of the"local Thunderstorm". The lightning often comes soon, when the AEF variability and time-frequency domain energy increase significantly. The thunderstorm is often dying out or moving away from the station, when the time-frequency domain energy decreases significantly and concentrates in the low frequency band. The variation characteristics of AEF in time domain and frequency domain play an indicative role in the occurrence and dissipation of thunderstorm. This can be considered as a reference for converged application of the atmospheric electric field data with other data in lightning risk early warning.

Abstract The Kakioka Magnetic Observatory (KMO) of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) made atmospheric electric field observations at Kakioka and Memambetsu beginning in 1929 and 1949, respectively, and ending in February 2021 and December 2010, respectively. The digital numerical data are available on the KMO website, although not all observation periods are covered. In this article, we introduce the available datasets and summarize the metadata regarding the observations, such as measurement instruments, maintenance methods and data processing.

We present a novel method to discriminate atmospheric electric field (AEF) variations originating from the global electrical circuit and local meteorological‐induced AEF variations. By comparing the AEF values measured at two different heights, the method identifies the AEF data including disturbances caused by charged blowing snow particles, and provides the fair‐weather AEF data. The intense positive (fair‐weather direction) apparent AEF was measured during strong winds because of the collision of negatively charged blowing snow particles into the sensor electrode of the electric field mill. In general, the volume density of blowing snow particles rapidly decreases with increasing height. Therefore, measured AEF values at the two heights were different. The difference between AEF values measured at the two heights increased at a wind speed of 6 m/s or more. Meanwhile, the statistical analysis showed that the AEF with and without clouds was less than approximately 1 V/m at Syowa Station, which is negligible. In addition, this case study at Syowa Station found no relationship between cloud extension/dissipation and AEF. Accordingly, we propose a practical method to identify the fair‐weather conditions by the AEF values at two heights and wind speed observed in the polar region, such as at Syowa Station. When we employ criteria that the difference between the AEF observed at the 1.4 and 10 m heights was within ±20 V/m under the wind speed with less than 6.0 m/s to the whole data at Syowa Station, 24% of them were identified as fair‐weather data. Plain Language Summary: Under the fair‐weather conditions on the ground, there is an atmospheric electric field (AEF) of about 100 V/m in the positive polarity from the upper atmosphere to the ground. In the polar regions, the AEF measurements have been often conducted, because there are a small number of aerosols which are a source of noise in AEF measurements under the fair‐weather conditions. However, blowing‐snow that frequently occurs in the polar regions are the major source of noise in AEF measurements due to the electrified snow particles. We have shown that the use of two different height AEF observations and wind speed data allows us to identify the noisy period originating from the electrified snow. In general, the AEF measurements, clouds are also a source of electric disturbance for the fair‐weather AEF. However, at Showa Station in Antarctica, the influence of clouds on the AEF measurements was found to be negligible. Thus, we conclude that this method, which can identify the fair‐weather period without various optical observation, would contribute to the study of global electric circuits. Key Points: A novel fair‐weather identification of atmospheric electric field (AEF) in polar region for the study of global electrical circuit is proposedTwo different height observations of AEF with the wind speed data identify snow‐origin signal [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The atmospheric electric field is an important physical parameter used to study the state of charge density distribution between the earth and the ionosphere, and its daily variation characteristics reflect the underlying atmospheric electrical properties in a region. In this paper, we used atmospheric electric field data from three global observation stations (the Xanthi station, the Zhuanghe station, and the University of Reading station) from January to December 2021 and then combined these data with meteorological data and geomagnetic activity data to filter the fair-day atmospheric electric field data and plot the average fair-weather atmospheric electric field curve. Then, we compared different sunrise and sunset times and PM 2.5 concentrations, analyzed the seasonal differences for each station, the differences among the three stations, and the difference between their curves and the Carnegie curve, and finally concluded that the difference among them showed positive correlations with PM 2.5 concentrations. The other possible reasons and the entire shape of the average fair-weather atmospheric electric field curve for a defined station are not affected by the season, including the location of peaks and valleys, and the overall variation have been also revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowcasting of lightning occurrences is essential in tropical locations as lightening causes severe damage to life and property. This study attempts to nowcast lightning events during convective phenomena using an electric field monitor (EFM) at a tropical urban location, Kolkata (22.65°N, 88.45°E). Before the onset of heavy lightning occurrences, definite changes in the atmospheric electric field (EF) are observed, which in turn are associated with high cloud liquid water content (LWC) and low cloud base height (CBH). A model has been proposed to nowcast lightning strikes within about 17.5 km radius of the present location based on the EF standard deviation (EFSD) values. The proposed technique is tested with the lightning data provided by a collocated lightning detector, which yields a prediction efficiency of ~ 0.91 (~ 0.86), a false alarm rate of ~ 0.23 (~ 0.18), and a critical success index of ~ 0.71 (~ 0.72) with an optimal range of other performance parameters during the monsoon (pre-monsoon) periods, thereby generating an alarm 45 min before lightning events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface measurements of the atmospheric electric field at the University of Kashmir, Srinagar (34° 13′ N, 74° 83′ E, 1585 m amsl) and Gulmarg (34° 05′ N, 74° 39′ E, 2617 m amsl) in the Kashmir Valley from March 2018 to August 2020 are analyzed to understand the behavior of the electric field during fair-weather, precipitation, snowfall, and fog conditions. The maximum thunderstorm activity observed in May, June, and July is attributed to the higher amount of moisture transport by western disturbances during May followed by the monsoon wind in June and July from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Based on the observations, in addition to the ordinary thunderstorms, several severe convective thunderclouds associated with the positive end-of-storm oscillations and inverted dipole structured clouds are also reported and explained. In addition, the observation of raindrop-induced field and periodic oscillations (90-min) in the potential gradient are explained in terms of the impact of the charge carried by the raindrops during precipitation, splashing on the ground and suspended snowflakes in snowfall episodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Gamma‐ray glows are observational evidence of relativistic electron acceleration due to the electric field in thunderclouds. However, it is yet to be understood whether such relativistic electrons contribute to the initiation of lightning discharges. To tackle this question, we started the citizen science “Thundercloud Project,” where we map radiation measurements of glows from winter thunderclouds along Japan's sea coast area. We developed and deployed 58 compact gamma‐ray monitors at the end of 2021. On 30 December 2021, five monitors simultaneously detected a glow with its radiation distribution horizontally extending for 2 km. The glow terminated coinciding with a lightning flash at 04:08:34 JST, which was recorded by the two radio‐band lightning mapping systems, FALMA and DALMA. The initial discharges during the preliminary breakdown started above the glow, that is, in vicinity of the electron acceleration site. This result provides one example of possible connections between electron acceleration and lightning initiation.

The near-surface atmospheric electrostatic field plays a pivotal role in comprehending the global atmospheric circuit model and its influence on climate change. Prior to delving into the intricate interplay between solar activities, geological activities, and atmospheric electric field, a comprehensive examination of the diurnal fair atmospheric electric field’s baseline curve within a specific region is essential. Based on the atmospheric electric field network monitoring in Yunnan Province in the year 2022, this study systematically investigated the distribution of the atmospheric electric field under both fair-weather and disturbed weather conditions at a quadrilateral array encompassing Chuxiong Station, Mouding Station, Lufeng Station, and Dali Station. The primary focus was on elucidating the variations in the daily variation curves of fair atmospheric electric fields and conducting a comparative analysis with the Carnegie curves. The possible reasons for the differences among them are also discussed in this study, but more observational evidence is required to confirm the specific causes in the future.

A complex for measuring the electrical parameters of the surface layer of the atmosphere, which has been successfully operating in Kamchatka since 1997, is described. The basic principles of organization of such measurements and methods for their implementation under specific conditions are given. The main reactions of the electric field to meteorological phenomena, as well as to seismic and space events, are shown. A feature of the observatory is that it is located at mid-latitudes with a temperate maritime climate with a very small number of thunderstorms and in a region with high seismic activity. The paper presents the main results of studies of geophysical processes obtained at an observatory with such features. The measurement results of this complex are broadcast on the Internet and are available through a shared use center. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-energy physics in the atmosphere (HEPA) has undergone an intense reformation in the last decade. Correlated measurements of particle fluxes modulated by strong atmospheric electric fields, simultaneous measurements of the disturbances of the near-surface electric fields and lightning location, and registration of various meteorological parameters on the Earth have led to a better understanding of the complex processes in the terrestrial atmosphere. The cooperation of cosmic rays and atmospheric physics has led to the development of models for the origin of particle bursts recorded on the Earth's surface, estimation of vertical and horizontal profiles of electric fields in the lower atmosphere, recovery of electron and gamma ray energy spectra, the muon deceleration effect, etc. The main goal of this review is to demonstrate how the measurements performed at the Aragats cosmic ray observatory led to new results in atmospheric physics. We monitored particle fluxes around the clock using synchronized networks of advanced sensors that recorded and stored multidimensional data in databases with open, fast, and reliable access. Visualization and statistical analysis of particle data from hundreds of measurement channels disclosed the structure and strength of the atmospheric electric fields and explained observed particle bursts. Consequent solving of direct and inverse problems of cosmic rays revealed the modulation effects that the atmospheric electric field has on cosmic ray fluxes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An hourly scale precursor of inland earthquakes (EQs) is revealed in this paper. Several EQ cases in China have been reported. As indicated by a table listing 23 inland EQs and their shock time, epicenter location, magnitude, near-epicenter weather conditions, precursor start time and precursor duration, when the weather conditions are fair near the epicenter, an anomalously negative atmospheric electrostatic signal is readily observable approximately 2–48 h before the EQ occurs. Moreover, a successful single-station alarm for nearby moderate-magnitude EQs is demonstrated, and a possible mechanism for the precursor signal is proposed. The change in the electrostatic field during an EQ process is explained as the release of radioactive gases from the subsurface into the atmosphere via large (regional-scale) preexisting microfractures in the rock at the source depth. These gases considerably ionize the atmosphere, and the separated positive and negative ions establish a special macroscopic electric field. The final critical stage of 2–48 h before an EQ may indicate a stable tectonic process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Features of the manifestations of various sources of disturbances in the atmospheric electric field at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station have been studied, and the statistical relationship between solar and thunderstorm activity has been established. Air currents arising over the ocean, having overcome the mountain gorges of the Himalayas, carry moisture to the Northern Tien-Shan and determine the weather features and thunderstorm activity at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station. It was established that the maximum and minimum thunderstorm activity at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station corresponds to the distribution curve of daily thunderstorm activity for the Asia–Australia region. The investigation showed that coronal mass ejections (CMEs) affect the atmospheric electric field by increasing or decreasing its level or causing its fluctuations, depending on the features of manifestations in the near-Earth space and in the Earth's magnetosphere. In at least 70% of cases, thunderstorm activity was observed with a 1–2-day delay after impact on the Earth's magnetosphere by CMEs and HSSs. A number of cases were studied when thunderstorm activity was observed in a quiet geomagnetic field. In these cases, an increase in the values of fmin (the minimum frequency of reflection from the ionosphere) and foEs (the critical frequency of the sporadic E layer) was observed, which indicated an increase in the level of radio wave absorption in the ionospheric D-region and the level of electron density at altitudes of 100–120 km. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The temporal variations of cosmic-ray intensity, measured by ground-based detectors at various latitudes, longitudes, and altitudes, are related to the geophysical and solar phenomena. The latter are interplanetary coronal mass ejections and fast solar wind from coronal holes, which cause interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) abrupt variations near Earth. Interacting with the magnetosphere, they cause worldwide sudden decreases (Forbush decreases, FDs) of intensity followed by gradual recovery. The amplitude of the flux depletion depends on the type and energy of the registered particle, which in turn depends on geographical coordinates and the detector's energy threshold and selective power. SEVAN particle detector network with nodes in Europe and Armenia selects three types of particles that demonstrate coherent depletion and recovery and correspond to different energy galactic protons interacting with disturbed magnetospheric plasmas. On November 3–4, 2021, an interplanetary coronal mass injection (ICME) hit the magnetosphere, sparking a strong G3-class geomagnetic storm and auroras as far south as California and New Mexico. All detectors of the SEVAN network have registered an (FD) of ≈5% depletion in a 1-min time series of count rates. Approaching the maximum solar activity cycle, large variations of the particle flux intensity were registered on February 27, March 23, 2023, and March 24, 2024. In this work, we present measurements of these FDs performed on mountain altitudes on Aragats (Armenia), Lomnicky Stit (Slovakia), Mileshovka (Czechia), and at sea level DESY (Hamburg, Germany). We compared FD measurements made by SEVAN detectors and neutron monitors located on Aragats and Lomnicky Stit and made a correlation analysis of FD registration at different locations. • Low energy CR, neutrons, and high energy muons measured by SEVAN detector are sensitive to solar modulation. • SEVAN and NM detectors demonstrate coherent depletion and recovery of cosmic ray fluxes. • SEVAN detectors at mountain altitudes registered a pre-FD increase in fluxes of high-energy muons. • FD coincides with large values of the interplanetary magnetic field B, and small values of geomagnetic field Bx. • SEVAN measurements confirm that FD depends highly on the disturbed IMF rather than its Bz component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During thunderstorms, the electric fields above the LHAASO array efficiently modulate Extensive air showers (EASs), initiated by an ultra-high-energy gamma ray. Because of this modulation, the possible bias of the energy estimation for primary gamma rays with energies up to 100 TeV can be up to ten-fold, and for the primary energies of 1 PeV, the bias can range from 2.5 to 3 times. This result can be essential because observation of PEVatrons by LHAASO is based on rather small statistics, and the highest energy events can occasionally coincide with thunderstorms, which are very often on the Tibet plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the diurnal and seasonal variation curves of atmospheric electric field (Ez ${E}_{z}$) are obtained, based on the extensive observations at Mohe station (Geographical coordinates: 22.357°E, 53.482°N and geomagnetic coordinates: 195.5°E, 48.8°N) of the Chinese Meridian Project. The results show that the diurnal variation of Ez ${E}_{z}$ conforms to the "Carnegie" pattern, and the value of Ez ${E}_{z}$ in winter is higher than the summer. The coupling effect of the solar wind–magnetosphere with the atmospheric electric field is established. In total, 15 cases of magnetic storms are selected while Mohe is under fair weather condition throughout the storm period. The analyzed results reveal that Ez ${E}_{z}$ exhibits the same characteristics during the 15 storms, that is, Ez ${E}_{z}$ decreases sharply and changes simultaneously with the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) component and solar wind proton number density. When the IMF–Bz ${B}_{z}$ shifts to south, Ez ${E}_{z}$ presents a large decrease with magnitudes of about 100 V/m–600 V/m. Plain Language Summary: The variation in vertical atmospheric electric field (Ez ${E}_{z}$) reflects the change of global atmospheric circuit, which is controlled by the global thunderstorm activity (substantially for the middle and low latitudes) and magnetosphere–ionosphere perturbation (prone to the high latitudes). Based on the observations at Mohe station (geographical coordinates: 22.357°E, 53.482°N, geomagnetic coordinates; 195.5°E, 48.8°N) of the Chinese Meridian Project, the diurnal and seasonal variation curves of Ez ${E}_{z}$ have been constructed. The results show that the diurnal variation pattern of Ez ${E}_{z}$ conforms to the classical "Carnegie" variation pattern, and Ez ${E}_{z}$ value in winter is higher than that in summer. Further, the Ez ${E}_{z}$ variations during 15 magnetic storms are investigated. The coupling effect of the solar wind–magnetosphere with the atmospheric electric field is established using observations under fair weather days. When the vertical component of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF–Bz ${B}_{z}$) turns northward, Ez ${E}_{z}$ presents a positive disturbance, and the disturbance indicates a nonlinear relationship with the magnitude of the magnetic storm. When the IMF–Bz ${B}_{z}$ shifts southward, Ez ${E}_{z}$ presents a large negative perturbation with a magnitude of about 100 V/m–600 V/m. Atmospheric electric field and solar wind proton number density also have a tendency to change at the same time. Key Points: The diurnal and seasonal variation curves of Ez ${E}_{z}$ are obtained, based on the observations at Mohe station of the Meridian ProjectThe analyzed results reveal Ez ${E}_{z}$ decreases sharply and changes simultaneously with the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind proton number densityOur results indicate a possible coupling between the magnetosphere and lower atmosphere [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The variability in the atmospheric electric field is modulated by a combination of solar activities, meteorological activities, and geological conditions. A foundational dataset of the daily variations in the fair-weather atmospheric electric field is established in this study, and several examinations are conducted into the details of these variations in particular regions. This paper is organized as follows. First, the researchers count the datasets of daily variations to the atmospheric electric field on fair-weather days from 1 March–1 August 2022 at Zhongshan Chinese Station in Antarctica and Changping Station in Beijing. Then, the average daily variation in the atmospheric electric field on 40 fair-weather days in Antarctica is shown and the variations are compared with the average curve of 37 fair-weather days in Beijing during the same time period. Finally, the three main differences between these variations, their possible reasons, and a reasonable error analysis are clarified and discussed at the end of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Using a local atmospheric electric field sensor network (Field Mill), an electromagnetic link model was proposed considering a free space electric field and a theoretical electric field calculated from an atmospheric discharge. With this, it was possible to compare the theoretical value of this electric field with the experimental value of the local atmospheric electric field (estimated by the Field Mill sensor network). The results are initially analyzed considering wavelengths in the EHF spectrum (λ ~ 10-5m) and the VLF spectrum (λ ~ 104m). As assumed before, admitting that the lightning channel acts as an isotropic irradiator and a Field Mill sensor acts as a receiving antenna for the spectrum emitted by the lightning, a irradiated power model of the electromagnetic waves reaching the Field Mill sensor, according to the ITU-R P.873.4 standard, was calculated, thus allowing a correlation with a satellite radio link, in which the Field Mill sensor acts as a ground receiving antenna and the main channel of the lightning strikes acts as a transmitting antenna. Also, a model of the power irradiated by each lightning discharge, recorded by the Field Mill sensor network, was proposed, and the Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power - EIRP was calculated for different values of effective electric field (Eef) and then compared with the model of the power irradiated by the antenna (lightning). This makes it possible to do an analysis and determine if the lightning discharge can be approximated to an isotropically irradiated antenna model.

Synergetic measurements of the vertical atmospheric field and the total charge density in the presence of dust events are presented through the launches of balloon-borne instrumentation, including a MiniMill electrometer and a space charge sensor, under dust events during the AEOLUS Cal/Val campaign of ASKOS in Cabo Verde, in June/September 2022. The electric field profiling measurements obtained by different instrumentations are compared, and the near-ground observations are evaluated with a reference ground-based fieldmill electrometer. Moreover, their performance is assessed by utilizing measurements of the co-located Polly XT lidar and its extracted products above the launching site.

Precursor signals for earthquakes, such as radon anomalies, thermal anomalies, and water level changes, have been studied in earthquake prediction over several centuries. The atmospheric vertical electric field anomaly has been observed in recent years as a new and valuable signal for short-term earthquake prediction. In this paper, a physical mechanism of the atmospheric vertical electric field anomaly before the earthquake was proposed, based on which the Wenchuan earthquake verified the correctness of the model. Using Monte Carlo simulations, the variation of the radon concentration with height before the earthquake was used to simulate and calculate the ionization rates of radioactive radon decay products at different heights. We derived the atmospheric vertical electric field from −593 to −285 V/m from the surface to 10 m before the earthquake by solving the system of convection-diffusion partial equations for positive and negative particles. Moreover, negative atmospheric electric field anomalies were observed in both Wenjiang and Pixian before the Wenchuan earthquake on 12 May, with peaks of −600 V/m in Pixian and −200 V/m in Wenjiang. The atmospheric electric field data obtained from the simulation were shown to be in excellent concordance with the observed data of the Wenchuan earthquake. The physical mechanism can provide theoretical support for the atmospheric electric field anomaly as an earthquake precursor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, many researchers have an interest in the investigation of the electric field in the fair-weather electric environment along with its diurnal and seasonal variations across all regions of the world. However, a similar study in the southern part of Western Siberia has not yet been carried out. In this regard, the paper aims to estimate the mean values of the electric field and their variations in this area using the example of Tomsk. The time series of one-minute average potential gradient values as well as other quantities obtained from the geophysical observatory of the Institute of Monitoring of Climatic and Ecological Systems of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IMCES SB RAS, Tomsk, Russia) from 2006 to 2020 is used in this study. The mean annual value of the potential gradient in Tomsk is 282 V/m and usually varies from 161 to 372 V/m. The diurnal variations in potential gradient per year on average are characterized by oscillations of the continental type with a double maximum and minimum. The main minimum of diurnal variations is 7 h and the main maximum is 21 h of local time (00 and 14 UTC, respectively). According to the annual mode, the maximum potential gradient is observed in February, and the minimum is recorded in June. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, the atmospheric electric field observations are reported at Gulmarg station, Kashmir (34°05′N; 74°42′E) for a period of 1 year: June 2019–May 2020. The observation site is situated in an area with high thunderstorm activity and very high radon concentration. Diurnal characteristics of PG are explained with electrode effect under summer/dry surface conditions and evaporation effect under winter/wet surface conditions associated with sunrise. The latter effect is highly responsible for the diurnal peak of PG observed in afternoon (1300 LT) hours along with the water vapour pressure under low temperature. Similarly, excess positive charges found at the electrode layer shift the diurnal peak to an earlier time ~1000–1100 LT under turbulent exchange from the surface. Therefore, the annual mean curve is the resultant of these two effects that act in different seasons. In addition, the annual diurnal variation of the potential gradient is in agreement with some other continental stations having two maxima and higher values of PG during the winter months. The secondary diurnal maximum (2000 LT) is likely due to African thunderstorm activity being reflected strongly at our measurement site. Comparison of our results with Carnegie leads to a weak correlation between the two, which is due to the difference in the nature of observation sites, while a comparison with the observations of B N Raina (August 1970–October 1973) at the same observatory reveals a similar nature of PG variation. Finally, simple correlation plots of PG with meteorological parameters and radon concentration have been shown. The results indicate that radon concentration and meteorological parameters like temperature, relative humidity in addition to water vapour pressure are important local factors influencing the surface PG measurements at our site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current thunderstorm monitoring methods ignore the nonlinear and non-stationary characteristics of atmospheric electric field signals, which has a negative effect on the monitoring results. Based on complementary ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise and Savitzky-Golay filtering (CEEMDAN-SG), a point charge localization method for the thunderstorm cloud is proposed. After CEEMDAN is used to decompose the electric field signal into a series of intrinsic mode function (IMF) components, the signal is reconstructed after SG filtering of those noise-dominant components. Then, the reconstructed signal is used for point charge localization correction. By changing the signal samples, the decomposition order and SNR of CEEMDAN-SG, CEEMDAN, etc. are compared, and the performance of the method is analyzed. Experiments show that compared to the SNR before reconstruction, the SNR after reconstruction is improved by about 3%. At the same time, the results can match the radar chart well on the time scale. After using the CNN-LSTM network model, it is found that compared with the original signal, the amplitude of the absolute error of the reconstructed signal is larger, so that the signal characteristics can be more displayed. This once again proves the localization effects.

In this study, the response of atmospheric electrical and meteorological variables at three different sites of Argentina are studied during the total solar eclipse of December 14, 2020: Valcheta (100% darkening), Buenos Aires (73%) and El Leoncito (71%). The reduction in solar irradiance caused by the solar eclipse was expected to directly affect the near-surface electric field, known as the potential gradient (PG), through a reduction in turbulence and an increase in air conductivity. From the analysis of the observed meteorological parameters (temperature, relative humidity, and wind), no effects on the PG were observed that can be unequivocally attributed to this event based solely on boundary layer dynamics. The prevailing synoptic situation altered the response that the boundary layer could have given, namely, a clear drop in radiation, particularly at Valcheta, which was very close to a frontal zone and had occasional cloud coverage and reports of atmospheric suspended dust. PG measurements at Valcheta during the eclipse showed PG values several orders of magnitude higher and of opposite sign to the global daily mean fair weather (FW) PG curve and the local FW-PG curves calculated at CITEDEF (940 km away) and CASLEO (1200 km away). The PG values at Valcheta were shown to be more closely related to disturbed weather conditions than FW. On the contrary, at the other two locations studied, CITEDEF and CASLEO, further north and more distant from the frontal zone, the observed PG values on the day of the eclipse showed a higher consistency with the local daily mean FW-PG curves. A comparison between the FW-PG local curves at these two sites and the evolution of PG during the day of the eclipse, however, reveals a drop in PG values during the eclipse.

The atmospheric electric field is an important physical parameter used to study the state of charge density distribution between the earth and the ionosphere, and its daily variation characteristics reflect the underlying atmospheric electrical properties in a region. In this paper, we used atmospheric electric field data from three global observation stations (the Xanthi station, the Zhuanghe station, and the University of Reading station) from January to December 2021 and then combined these data with meteorological data and geomagnetic activity data to filter the fair-day atmospheric electric field data and plot the average fair-weather atmospheric electric field curve. Then, we compared different sunrise and sunset times and PM 2.5 concentrations, analyzed the seasonal differences for each station, the differences among the three stations, and the difference between their curves and the Carnegie curve, and finally concluded that the difference among them showed positive correlations with PM 2.5 concentrations. The other possible reasons and the entire shape of the average fair-weather atmospheric electric field curve for a defined station are not affected by the season, including the location of peaks and valleys, and the overall variation have been also revealed.

A complex for measuring the electrical parameters of the surface layer of the atmosphere, which has been successfully operating in Kamchatka since 1997, is described. The basic principles of organization of such measurements and methods for their implementation under specific conditions are given. The main reactions of the electric field to meteorological phenomena, as well as to seismic and space events, are shown. A feature of the observatory is that it is located at mid-latitudes with a temperate maritime climate with a very small number of thunderstorms and in a region with high seismic activity. The paper presents the main results of studies of geophysical processes obtained at an observatory with such features. The measurement results of this complex are broadcast on the Internet and are available through a shared use center.

High-energy physics in the atmosphere (HEPA) has undergone an intense reformation in the last decade. Correlated measurements of particle fluxes modulated by strong atmospheric electric fields, simultaneous measurements of the disturbances of the near-surface electric fields and lightning location, and registration of various meteorological parameters on the Earth have led to a better understanding of the complex processes in the terrestrial atmosphere. The cooperation of cosmic rays and atmospheric physics has led to the development of models for the origin of particle bursts recorded on the Earth’s surface, estimation of vertical and horizontal profiles of electric fields in the lower atmosphere, recovery of electron and gamma ray energy spectra, the muon deceleration effect, etc. The main goal of this review is to demonstrate how the measurements performed at the Aragats cosmic ray observatory led to new results in atmospheric physics. We monitored particle fluxes around the clock using synchronized networks of advanced sensors that recorded and stored multidimensional data in databases with open, fast, and reliable access. Visualization and statistical analysis of particle data from hundreds of measurement channels disclosed the structure and strength of the atmospheric electric fields and explained observed particle bursts. Consequent solving of direct and inverse problems of cosmic rays revealed the modulation effects that the atmospheric electric field has on cosmic ray fluxes.

An hourly scale precursor of inland earthquakes (EQs) is revealed in this paper. Several EQ cases in China have been reported. As indicated by a table listing 23 inland EQs and their shock time, epicenter location, magnitude, near-epicenter weather conditions, precursor start time and precursor duration, when the weather conditions are fair near the epicenter, an anomalously negative atmospheric electrostatic signal is readily observable approximately 2–48 h before the EQ occurs. Moreover, a successful single-station alarm for nearby moderate-magnitude EQs is demonstrated, and a possible mechanism for the precursor signal is proposed. The change in the electrostatic field during an EQ process is explained as the release of radioactive gases from the subsurface into the atmosphere via large (regional-scale) preexisting microfractures in the rock at the source depth. These gases considerably ionize the atmosphere, and the separated positive and negative ions establish a special macroscopic electric field. The final critical stage of 2–48 h before an EQ may indicate a stable tectonic process.

Features of the manifestations of various sources of disturbances in the atmospheric electric field at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station have been studied, and the statistical relationship between solar and thunderstorm activity has been established. Air currents arising over the ocean, having overcome the mountain gorges of the Himalayas, carry moisture to the Northern Tien-Shan and determine the weather features and thunderstorm activity at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station. It was established that the maximum and minimum thunderstorm activity at the Tien-Shan high-mountain station corresponds to the distribution curve of daily thunderstorm activity for the Asia–Australia region. The investigation showed that coronal mass ejections (CMEs) affect the atmospheric electric field by increasing or decreasing its level or causing its fluctuations, depending on the features of manifestations in the near-Earth space and in the Earth’s magnetosphere. In at least 70% of cases, thunderstorm activity was observed with a 1–2-day delay after impact on the Earth’s magnetosphere by CMEs and HSSs. A number of cases were studied when thunderstorm activity was observed in a quiet geomagnetic field. In these cases, an increase in the values of fmin (the minimum frequency of reflection from the ionosphere) and foEs (the critical frequency of the sporadic E layer) was observed, which indicated an increase in the level of radio wave absorption in the ionospheric D-region and the level of electron density at altitudes of 100–120 km.

This article, titled "Editorial: Impact of solar activities on weather and climate," explores the relationship between solar activities and weather and climate patterns on Earth. It discusses various ways in which solar activities can affect atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, tropical cyclones, and ocean circulation. The article includes several research papers that investigate the link between solar activity and surface climate variability, TC genesis frequency, the North Atlantic Oscillation, El Niño-Southern Oscillation, and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. It also examines the influence of solar forcing on the South Asian jet, high-altitude clouds, and energy transmission in the climate system. The article acknowledges the challenges and questions in studying the impact of the Sun on Earth's atmosphere and climate. [Extracted from the article]