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P-gp is the most widely studied MDR protein conferring cellular resistance to many standard or targeted therapeutic agents. For this reason, P-gp chemoresistance evaluation, established before or during chemotherapy, can be very relevant in order to optimize the efficacy of treatments, particularly for aggressive tumoral subtypes such as triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). In this context, our team developed an innovative cell-permeant fluorescent probe called the LightSpot ® -FL-1, which is able to specifically localize and quantify the P-gp in cells or cell masses, as evidenced on different TNBC cell models. First, flow cytometry analysis showed LightSpot ® -FL-1 cell penetration and persistence in time, in TNBC cells. Then, LightSpot ® -FL-1 staining was compared to anti-P-gp immunostaining by fluorescence microscopy on five TNBC cell lines. Results showed a clear similarity of P-gp localization and expression level, confirmed by Pearson's and Mander's colocalization coefficients with 92.1% and 100.0%, and a strong correlation coefficient of R 2 = 0.99. In addition, the LightSpot ® -FL-1 staining allowed the quantification of a P-gp induction (33% expression increase) following a 6-hour spheroid model exposure to the anti-PARP Olaparib. Thus, the new LightSpot ® -FL-1 cell-permeant probe, targeting P-gp, appears to be an effective tool for drug resistance evaluation in preclinical models and shows promising possibilities for future use in clinical diagnosis.

Cancer spheroids are very effective preclinical models to improve anticancer drug screening. In order to optimize and extend the use of spheroid models, these works were focused on the development of a new storage concept to maintain these models in the longer term using the Triple-Negative Breast Cancer MDA-MB-231 spheroid models. The results highlight that the combination of a temperature of 4 °C and oxygen-free conditions allowed the spheroid characteristics of OptiPASS ® serum-free culture medium to preserve the spheroid characteristics during 3-, 5- or 7-day-long storage. Indeed, after storage they were returned to normal culture conditions, with recovered spheroids presenting similar growth rates (recovery = 96.2%), viability (Live/Dead ® profiles) and metabolic activities (recovery = 90.4%) compared to nonstored control spheroids. Likewise, both recovered spheroids (after storage) and nonstored controls presented the same response profiles as two conventional drugs, i.e., epirubicin and cisplatin, and two anti-PARP1 targeted drugs-i.e., olaparib and veliparib. This new original storage concept seems to induce a temporary stop in spheroid growth while maintaining their principal characteristics for further use. In this way, this innovative and simple storage concept may instigate future biological sample preservation strategies.

Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) are unlikely to respond to hormonal therapies and anti-HER2-targeted therapies. TNBCs overexpress EGFR and exhibit constitutive activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway. We hypothesized that simultaneously blocking EGFR and mTOR could be a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of TNBC. We examined the antitumour activity of the mTOR inhibitor everolimus combined with the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib in TNBC cell with or without activating mutations in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway. We demonstrated that everolimus and gefitinib induced synergistic growth inhibition in the PI3K and PTEN-mutant CAL-51 cell line but not in the PTEN-null HCC-1937 cell line. The antiproliferative effect was associated with synergistic inhibition of mTOR and P70S6K phosphorylation, as well as a significant reduction in 4E-BP1 activation in the CAL-51 cell line. We also showed that combination therapy significantly inhibited cell cycle progression and increased apoptosis in this cell line. Gene and protein expression analysis revealed significant downregulation of cell cycle regulators after exposure to combined treatment. Collectively, these results suggested that dual inhibition of mTOR and EGFR may be an effective treatment for TNBC with activating mutations of PI3K.

The Triple-Negative Breast Cancer subtype (TNBC) is particularly aggressive and heterogeneous. Thus, Poly-ADP-Ribose Polymerase inhibitors were developed to improve the prognosis of patients and treatment protocols are still being evaluated. In this context, we modelized the efficacy of Olaparib (i.e., 5 and 50 µM), combined with fractioned irradiation (i.e., 5 × 2 Gy) on two aggressive TNBC cell lines MDA-MB-231 (BRCAness) and SUM1315 (BRCA1-mutated). In 2D cell culture and for both models, the clonogenicity drop was 95-fold higher after 5 µM Olaparib and 10 Gy irradiation than Olaparib treatment alone and was only 2-fold higher after 50 µM and 10 Gy. Similar responses were obtained on TNBC tumor-like spheroid models after 10 days of co-treatment. Indeed, the ratio of metabolic activity decrease was of 1.2 for SUM1315 and 3.3 for MDA-MB-231 after 5 µM and 10 Gy and of only 0.9 (both models) after 50 µM and 10 Gy. MDA-MB-231, exhibiting a strong proliferation profile and an overexpression of AURKA, was more sensitive to the co-treatment than SUM1315 cell line, with a stem-cell like phenotype. These results suggest that, with the studied models, the potentiation of Olaparib treatment could be reached with low-dose and long-term exposure combined with fractioned irradiation.

Triple-negative breast cancers are particularly aggressive. In vitro cultures are one of the major pathways for developing anticancer strategies. The effectiveness and reproducibility of the drug screenings depend largely on the homogeneity of culture media. In order to optimize the predictive responses of triple-negative breast cancer 3D cell culture models, these works were focused on the development of SUM1315 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines in OptiPASS medium, a new serum-free formulation (BIOPASS). In monolayer cell culture, OptiPASS medium was more suitable for MDA-MB-231 than SUM1315 cell line but maintained cell phenotype and allowed sufficient proliferation. For spheroids produced in OptiPASS, the size monitoring showed a 1.3 and 1.5-fold increase for MDA-MB-231 and SUM1315 cell lines, respectively and viability/mortality profiles were maintained. Spheroids drug sensitivity thresholds were also improved allowing quicker high throughput drug screenings. These results showed the suitability of OptiPASS for 2D and 3D cell cultures of these two triple-negative breast cancer cell lines, with reproducibility of spheroid formation superior to 98%. This opens the way to the common use of this synthetic medium in future preclinical breast cancer research studies., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Triple-Negative Basal-Like tumors, representing 15 to 20% of breast cancers, are very aggressive and with poor prognosis. Targeted therapies have been developed extensively in preclinical and clinical studies to open the way for new treatment strategies. The present study has focused on developing 3D cell cultures from SUM1315 and MDA-MB-231, two triple-negative basal-like (TNBL) breast cancer cell lines, using the liquid overlay technique. Extracellular matrix concentration, cell density, proliferation, cell viability, topology and ultrastructure parameters were determined. The results showed that for both cell lines, the best conditioning regimen for compact and homogeneous spheroid formation was to use 1000 cells per well and 2% Geltrex®. This conditioning regimen highlighted two 3D cell models: non-proliferative SUM1315 spheroids and proliferative MDA-MB-231 spheroids. In both cell lines, the comparison of 2D vs 3D cell culture viability in the presence of increasing concentrations of chemotherapeutic agents i.e. cisplatin, docetaxel and epirubicin, showed that spheroids were clearly less sensitive than monolayer cell cultures. Moreover, a proliferative or non-proliferative 3D cell line property would enable determination of cytotoxic and/or cytostatic drug activity. 3D cell culture could be an excellent tool in addition to the arsenal of techniques currently used in preclinical studies., Competing Interests: CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Increased epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is recognized as a promising therapeutic target, specifically through the use of selective EGFR inhibitors combined with chemotherapies. TNBC is characterized by genetic instability that leads to increased sensitivity to cytotoxic agents. We analyzed the effect of anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies (mAbs; cetuximab and panitumumab) in combination with chemotherapeutic agents (docetaxel, cisplatin, and epirubicin) on EGFR-expressing TNBC cell lines that have different mutation statuses for one oncogene (KRAS) and two tumor suppressor genes (PTEN and BRCA1). Both mAbs failed to improve the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapies in the KRAS mutant cell line (MDA-MB-231) and PTEN-null cell lines (HCC-1937 and MDA-MB-468). In contrast, mAbs combined with DNA-damaging agents (cisplatin or epirubicin) had a synergistic effect in the BRCA1-mutant cell line SUM-1315 (wild-type KRAS and PTEN). The reintroduction of wild-type BRCA1 into SUM-1315 cells abolished this synergism. The improved effect of combination therapy was associated with cell cycle arrest at G1 phase and inhibition of the phosphorylation of EGFR and ERK1/2 proteins. These results suggest that patients with BRCA1-associated TNBC without genetic alterations in the PTEN and KRAS genes may have improved therapeutic responses to anti-EGFR mAbs combined with DNA-damaging agents. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and activation of its downstream signaling pathways. Dual targeting of EGFR using one monoclonal antibody (mAb; cetuximab or panitumumab) and one tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI; gefitinib or erlotinib) is a potential therapeutic approach. We investigated the effect of these therapies in EGFR-expressing TNBC cell lines that do or do not harbor the main activating mutations of EGFR pathways. Cell lines were sensitive to EGFR-TKIs, whereas mAbs were active only in MDA-MB-468 (EGFR amplification) and SUM-1315 (KRAS and PTEN wild-type) cells. MDA-MB-231 (KRAS mutated) and HCC-1937 (PTEN deletion) cells were resistant to mAbs. The combined treatment resulted in a synergistic effect on cell proliferation and superior inhibition of the RAS/MAPK signaling pathway in mAb-sensitive cells. The anti-proliferative effect was associated with G1 cell cycle arrest followed by apoptosis. Sensitivity to therapies was characterized by induction of positive regulators and inactivation of negative regulators of cell cycle. These results suggest that dual EGFR inhibition might result in an enhanced antitumor effect in a subgroup of TNBC. The status of EGFR, KRAS and PTEN could be used as a molecular marker for predicting the response to this therapeutic strategy.

The triple negative basal-like (TNBL) breast carcinoma is an aggressive and unfavorable prognosis disease. Inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase such as Olaparib could represent a promising targeted therapy but their sensitivity against Multidrug Resistance proteins (MDR), which causes resistance, is not well defined. Thus, our work focused on the analysis of P-gp and BCRP coexpression in the SUM1315 TNBL human cell line, in correlation with Olaparib intracellular concentration. Western blot analyses showed a clear coexpression of P-gp and BCRP in SUM1315 cells. A low cytotoxic Olaparib treatment clearly led to an increased expression of both BCRP and P-gp in these cells. Indeed, after 1.5 h of treatment, BCRP expression was increased with a 1.8 fold increase rate. Then, P-gp took over from 3 h to 15 h with an average increase rate of 1.8 fold, and finally returned to control value at 24 h. HPLC-UV analyses showed that, in the same treatment conditions, the intracellular Olaparib concentration increased from 1 h to 3 h and remained relatively stable until 24 h. Results suggest that the resistance mechanism induced by Olaparib in TNBL SUM1315 cell line may be overpassed if a cytotoxic and stable intracellular level of the drug can be maintained.

The hypermetabolic nature of cancer cells and their increased reliance on "aerobic glycolysis", as originally described by Otto Warburg and colleagues, are considered metabolic hallmarks of cancer cells. BRCA1 is a major tumor suppressor in breast cancer and it was implicated in numerous pathways resulting in anticarcinogenic functions. The objective of our study was to address specific contributions of BRCA1 to the metabolic features of cancer cells, including the so-called "Warburg effect". To get a comprehensive approach of the role of BRCA1 in tumor cell metabolism, we performed a global transcriptional and metabolite profiling in a BRCA1-mutated breast cancer cell line transfected or not by wild-type BRCA1. This study revealed that BRCA1 induced numerous modifications of metabolism, including strong inhibition of glycolysis while TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation tended to be activated. Regulation of AKT by BRCA1 in both our cell model and BRCA1-mutated breast tumors was suggested to participate in the effect of BRCA1 on glycolysis. We could also show that BRCA1 induced a decrease of ketone bodies and free fatty acids, maybe consumed to supply Acetyl-CoA for TCA cycle. Finally increased activity of antioxidation pathways was observed in BRCA1-transfected cells, that could be a consequence of ROS production by activated oxidative phosphorylation. Our study suggests a new function for BRCA1 in cell metabolic regulation, globally resulting in reversion of the Warburg effect. This could represent a new mechanism by which BRCA1 may exert tumor suppressor function.

BRCA1 acts as a tumour suppressor and germ-line mutations within this gene are found in a large proportion of families with breast cancer. The aim of our study was to unravel the mechanism of action of genistein, the major soy phytoestrogen, in BRCA1-mutant human breast cancer cell lines. Four breast cancer cell lines were studied for their response to genistein, three of them harbouring different mutations within the BRCA1 gene (HCC1937, SUM149 and SUM1315 cells) and the MDA-MB-231 cell line, which expresses a functional BRCA1 protein. We showed that genistein inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis more efficiently in BRCA1-mutant cells than in cells expressing wild-type BRCA1 protein. Increased AKT and decreased p21(WAF1/CIP1) protein levels could explain the relative resistance to genistein elicited by cells with wild-type BRCA1. BRCA1-mutant breast cancer cells are highly sensitive to genistein treatment and p21(WAF1/CIP1) and AKT could be genistein targets in these cells.

Soy phytoestrogens, among which genistein, seem to protect from breast cancer development. In order to study the role of the breast tumour suppressor BRCA1 in response to genistein, we used a new breast cancer cell model: the SUM1315MO2 cell line carrying the 185delAG BRCA1 mutation, which we stably transfected with a plasmid encoding wild-type BRCA1. We showed that growth of BRCA1 mutant cells was strongly inhibited by genistein whereas it only had a weak effect in cells expressing wild-type BRCA1 protein. BRCA1 mutant cells hypersensitivity could be linked to higher expression of ERbeta gene, which suggests that genistein may be an efficient inhibitor of cancer development in BRCA1 mutant breast cancer cells.

Therapeutic administration of the antiviral agent cidofovir with radiation markedly enhanced the antitumor effect of ionizing radiation in cells of two HPV18+ human cervical carcinoma cell lines. Although this potent radiosensitizing effect was associated with repression of the viral oncoproteins E6/ E7 and restoration of TP53 as shown previously, additional mechanisms may be involved. In the present study, we investigated the antiangiogenic effect of the combination of cidofovir and radiation in cells of two HPV18+ cervical cancer cell lines, HeLa and ME180, and assessed the molecular mechanisms associated with the antiangiogenic effect observed. Cells were exposed to cidofovir (10 microg/ml) and irradiated (1-9 Gy). The angiogenic response was studied in vitro by a matrigel invasion assay. Modulations of E6, TP53 and VEGF mRNA and protein levels were studied by real-time RT-PCR, Western blot analysis and ELISA, respectively. Then a double RNA interference approach was used to analyze the connection between E6/TP53 and VEGF. The combination of cidofovir and radiation had a potent antiangiogenic effect. It induced E6 inhibition, restoration of TP53, and reduction of the proangiogenic phenotype of HPV18+ cells associated with VEGF inhibition. A siRNA strategy showed an anti-VEGF action of the combination mediated directly by E6 inhibition and TP53 restoration, since E6 siRNA inhibited VEGF whereas co-transfection with E6 and TP53 siRNA abrogated the anti-VEGF effect. This study showed that the combination of cidofovir with ionizing radiation has an antiangiogenic effect associated with VEGF inhibition subsequent to E6 inhibition and TP53 restoration.

The straightforward production and dose-controlled administration of protein therapeutics remain major challenges for the biopharmaceutical manufacturing and gene therapy communities. Transgenes linked to HIV-1-derived vpr and pol-based protease cleavage (PC) sequences were co-produced as chimeric fusion proteins in a lentivirus production setting, encapsidated and processed to fusion peptide-free native protein in pseudotyped lentivirions for intracellular delivery and therapeutic action in target cells. Devoid of viral genome sequences, protein-transducing nanoparticles (PTNs) enabled transient and dose-dependent delivery of therapeutic proteins at functional quantities into a variety of mammalian cells in the absence of host chromosome modifications. PTNs delivering Manihot esculenta linamarase into rodent or human, tumor cell lines and spheroids mediated hydrolysis of the innocuous natural prodrug linamarin to cyanide and resulted in efficient cell killing. Following linamarin injection into nude mice, linamarase-transducing nanoparticles impacted solid tumor development through the bystander effect of cyanide.

High concentrations of certain amino acids are known to affect hormonal secretion, immune function, electrolyte balance or metabolic functions. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms responsible for these effects. We showed that, as well as spermidine transport, the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), the first and rate-limiting enzyme in polyamine biosynthesis, is decreased in human colon adenocarcinoma cells, Caco-2, following a 4-h supplementation with one of the two polyamine precursor amino acids, L-arginine or L-methionine. Dose-response assays indicated that the inhibitory effect of supplemental L-methionine was stronger than that of supplemental L-arginine. However, it was transient, being even replaced by ODC induction after 8 h, whereas the inhibitory effect of L-arginine lasted for at least 8 h. Unlike L-cysteine, neither L-methionine nor L-arginine could inhibit ODC activity in a crude acellular preparation of the enzyme. The inhibition of ODC activity in cells exposed to L-methionine or L-arginine was due to a decreased abundance of ODC protein without change at the mRNA level and each of these amino acids could counteract ODC induction by a glycine supplement. Contrary to the latter, supplemental L-methionine or L-arginine induced a marked decrease in ODC half-life, concomitantly with an increase in the activity of antizyme, an ODC inhibitory protein. Thus, depending on their nature, amino acids can up- or downregulate ODC activity at the protein stability level.

The effect of amino acids on the regulation of the expression of spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase (SSAT), the key enzyme of polyamine catabolism, was studied in HeLa cells. When compared with similar exposure to complete medium, deprivation of arginine, methionine or leucine gave rise to a time-dependent, slowly reversible increase in the cellular level of SSAT mRNA that started to be significant after 8, 12 or 16h and reached four-, five- and two-fold after 16h, respectively. Experiments utilizing (i) constructs containing fragments of the SSAT promoter linked to a luciferase reporter gene or (ii) actinomycin D (Act-D)-treated cells indicated that the increase in the SSAT mRNA level was due to an augmentation in gene transcription and message stability after omission of one of the polyamine precursor amino acids. By contrast, SSAT mRNA stabilisation was only observed when leucine was the omitted amino acid. Amino acid deprivation was also found to cause increased intracellular activity of SSAT concurrent with changes in the cell polyamine content, namely increased putrescine but decreased spermine levels. Furthermore, stable expression of a dominant negative mutant of stress-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (SAPK/ERK) kinase 1 in HeLa cells was found to inhibit the increase in SSAT mRNA by amino acid deprivation. The data suggest that c-Jun N-terminal kinase/SAPK (JNK/SAPK) may be involved in the amino acid-dependent regulation of SSAT expression.