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Limited supply of quality feed is the most common problem limiting livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Routine feed evaluation is indispensable for formulating balanced rations, feed characterization, safety, and minimizing the environmental impact of livestock. Traditional wet chemistry has not met this demand in SSA because it is time consuming, expensive, reliant on imported reagents and equipment that requires regular maintenance. Near Infrared Reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a rapid and accurate alternative. NIRS can help meet the need to characterize locally available forages and feeds on the continent, thus allowing formulation of optimally balanced and safe rations, facilitating establishment of nutritive value-based pricing, and improving feed marketing and environmental stewardship. Though several NIRS systems have been purchased in many SSA countries, few are currently used. Reasons include high upfront costs, lack of requisite technical capacity, lack of access to comprehensive wet chemistry-based databases to develop and validate robust and accurate predictive equations, lack of access to or relevance of existing validated equations, and limited awareness about the value of NIRS. Recently developed portable devices can dramatically reduce cost, while providing flexibility and comparable accuracy to benchtop systems. Formation of NIRS consortia and communities of practice including public-private partnerships that link equipment, pool resources, and provide periodic training and troubleshooting, can address many of these problems. This paper elaborates the potential for using NIRS to improve feed analysis in SSA countries, the reasons for the low use of existing systems, and strategies to improve the adoption and use of NIRS.

Understanding the empirical relationships among three parameters is necessary to reduce household vulnerability: diversification, market dependence and economic security. A cross-sectional study of...

The objective of this study was to assess the chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of residues of five pearl millet varieties and to investigate their effect on the performance of sheep....

Many factors interact to shape household food security and consumption and these must be analyzed together to build understandings of how they interact in particular contexts. In the Sahelian context, we report on a study investigating how productive resources (access to capital, land, labor), livelihood choices, food cultural norms and location together affect household food consumption by 120 rural households in the provinces of Yatenga and Seno in Burkina Faso. These two provinces have quite different cultural and socioeconomic conditions. Data was generated from an initial interview focused on household resource access followed by monitoring of household food consumption using 24-h and 7-day recall interviews over 11 months. Grain consumption was estimated along with the frequency of milk, meat, vegetable, oil/fats, and fruit consumption. Food security is shaped by the pathways through which households gain access to food. Surveyed household report low levels of self provisioning of grain (averaging around 50% of need) with different seasonal patterns of grain purchases based on cash sources. Principal components analysis finds significant degree of co-variation of food consumption parameters. Regression analysis finds that disposable wealth and cultural norms against milk consumption are positively and negatively associated with food consumption, controlling for land and labor access. Location (province) and ethnic identity (related or not to Mossi culture) are found to be important factors affecting household proclivity and ability to manage livestock which in turn leads to greater consumption of animal products (milk and meat) and greater savings to mobilize during times of grain deficit.

This study determined the effect of drying or ensiling cassava peels on some conservation characteristics and growth performance of sheep. Fresh peels were either sun-dried to a DM of 904 g/kg or ensiled for 45 days for determination of some chemical and microbial characteristics, and growth performance of sheep. 45 Djallonké sheep were randomly assigned to three supplementary dietary treatments (Control and dried or ensiled) and fed for 70 days. Ensiling reduced the pH from 5.65 in the fresh peel to 4.15 compared to 6.15 in the dried peel. Crude protein (CP) increased from 45±0.44 g/kg DM in the fresh peel to 46±0.48 and 52±0.88 g/kg DM in the dried and ensiled peel, respectively. Reduction in neutral detergent fibre concentration was greater by ensiling than by drying. However, a greater (P = 0.001) reduction in HCN concentration was achieved by drying than by ensiling. Moulds were greater (P = 0.011) in the ensiled than dry peels. Average daily weight gain was higher (P = 0.031) for sheep offered the ensiled than the dried or Control diet. In conclusion, sun-drying was more effective at reducing HCN concentration whereas ensiling improved the CP content of cassava peels and growth performance of sheep.

La faible pluviométrie et la pauvreté des sols du Séno et du Yatenga au Burkina Faso influencent négativement les rendements agricoles et la production animale. Pour améliorer la productivité et favoriser une meilleure sécurité alimentaire, il est nécessaire d’intensifier le système de culture à travers l’adoption de techniques culturales adéquates. L’objectif de cette étude est d’analyser la pratique des techniques d’intensification durable de la production agropastorale selon le genre. A cet effet, une enquête a été conduite auprès de 632 individus. Un modèle logistique binaire a été utilisé avec SPSS 20 pour vérifier si les caractéristiques sociodémographiques des enquêtés prédisaient de façon significative la pratique d’une technique d’intensification. Une valeur de P < 0,05 a été jugée statistiquement significative. Les résultats révèlent une différence en fonction du genre dans la pratique des techniques d’intensification de la production et montrent que ces différences sont liées au niveau d’éducation, à l’activité primaire, à la taille du ménage, au groupe ethnique, au groupe de genre et à l’âge des enquêtés. Les déterminants de l’adoption des technologies d’intensification de la production agropastorale devraient être pris en compte dans la politique agricole du pays pour une meilleure diffusion de ces technologies auprès des paysans.Mots clés : Technologies améliorées, systèmes mixtes, groupe de genre, Séno, Yatenga. English Title: Intensification of agro-pastoral production and gender in the Sudano-Sahelian domain in Burkina FasoLow rainfall and poor soils in the Seno and Yatenga regions of Burkina Faso have a negative impact on agricultural yields and livestock production. To improve productivity and promote better food security, it is necessary to intensify the farming systems through the adoption of appropriate of intensification practices. The objective of this study is to analyze the effect of gender on intensification practices in agro-pastoral systems. A survey was conducted involving 632 individuals from different gender groups. A binary logistic model was used with SPSS 20 to assess whether the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents had significant effect on intensification practices. A value of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results revealed gender differences in intensification practices and showed that these differences are related to education level, primary activity, household size, ethnic group, gender group and age of the respondents. The determinants of the agro-pastoral production intensification technologies should be taken into account in the country's agricultural policy for a better dissemination of these technologies to farmers.Keywords: Improved technologies, mixed systems, gender group, Seno, Yatenga.

In West African Sahel, there has been an only limited intensification of the mixed crop and livestock systems due to many constraints faced by smallholder farmers including climate change, ...

An on-farm study was conducted in the Northern and Upper East regions of Ghana to investigate the productivity and nutritive value of irrigated Urochloa ruziziensis (syn. Brachiaria ruziziensis) and Sorghum almum grasses as options against dry season feed-scarcity and to understand associated market opportunities. Sixty participating farmers each established 100-m2 plots which were sown at 15 kg ha22 1 drilled in 60-cm rows in the dry season of 2016 and 2017. Irrigation was by flooding of soil surface every alternate day throughout the period of the trial. At both regions, herbage accumulation and nutritive value of forage species were determined at four harvesting stages: 4, 8, 12, and 16 weeks after planting (WAP) followed by 4-week intervals between harvests. At the end of the trial, fresh biomass was weighed, bundled and sold in major livestock feed markets to estimate market price. Allowing forages to establish for only 8 weeks resulted in two 4-week regrowth harvests with dry matter accumulation (DMA) ranging from 4.5 to 8.1 Mg DM ha-1 from both species and in both regions. Generally, herbage nutritive values in terms of crude protein, metabolizable energy concentration, and in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) declined (P

This study determined the digestibility and growth performance of sheep fed groundnut fodder obtained from early- or late-maturing cultivars. Early-maturing cultivars (90 days) included Chinese, Yenyawoso and Sumnut 23 whereas late-maturing cultivars (110 to 120 days) were Sumnut 22, Azivivi and Manipinta. Each variety was cultivated on 4 replicated fields. At maturity, all the cultivars were harvested. The pods were separated from the haulms (leaves and twigs) and equal portions of the haulms were composited into early- or late-maturing cultivars. Each of the composited haulms was then dried and chopped to a theoretical length of 3–4 cm before being used to formulate two diets that were fed to twenty-two West African Dwarf sheep (14.75±2.52 kg) in a 45-d feeding trial. Two ruminally-cannulated Nungua Black Head sheep were used to determine the digestion kinetics of the fodder in an in situ digestibility experiment whereas in vitro digestibility of the fodder at 48 h was also assessed. The early-maturing cultivars had higher concentrations of acid detergent fibre (ADF; P = 0.01) and acid detergent lignin (ADL; P = 0.02) but lower (P = 0.02) concentration of dry matter (92.4 vs. 93.3%) compared to the late-maturing cultivars. The concentration of silica differed between the two cultivars by 44%, as it tended (P = 0.08) to be higher in the late-maturing compared to the early- maturing cultivars (2.6 vs. 1.8%). The higher concentrations of ADF and ADL in the early-maturing cultivars reduced (P = 0.03) the extent of digestion of this fodder compared to the late-maturing cultivars (43.9 vs. 52.1% DM). Growth performance of sheep fed the groundnut fodder did not differ statistically (P ≥ 0.69). This study concludes that late-maturing cultivars produced more DM and had less recalcitrant fibre constituents (ADF and ADL) than early-maturing cultivars. Improvements in the extent of digestion of the late-maturing groundnut cultivars did not reflect in the growth performance of sheep fed the late-maturing groundnut fodder.

The feeding systems of small ruminants in Northern Ghana are characterized by waste which necessitates efficient use of the available feed resources, particularly in the dry season. To this end, the use of improved feed trough was demonstrated in three communities in Northern Ghana, namely Duko and Tibali in Northern region; Gia in Upper East region in the late dry, wet, and early dry seasons between March 2019 and February 2020. This study involved 10 farmers randomly selected in each community. The participating farmers were provided with one improved feed trough each which was then compared to the traditional feed trough. Data were collected on the quantity of feed offered, amount wasted, and time spent feeding the animals for six consecutive days in the three study sites across seasons. To document the perception of the farmers on the improved feed trough, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered. Results showed that improved feed trough reduced feed waste significantly in the study sites across seasons. For example, the percentages of waste in feeding the animals using the traditional feed trough were 35%, 22%, and 27% in Duko, Gia, and Tibali, respectively, in the late dry season compared to less than 1% with the improved feed trough during the same season. The farmers’ perceptions were similar to the findings of this study which suggest that efficient feed utilization by small ruminants can be enhanced with the use of improved feed trough.

Aims: An experiment was conducted to compare the growth performance of two varieties of Moringa oleifera (wild variety and PKM-1) under different seasonal period at two locations in northern Burkina Faso, and the potential for improving household nutrition. Study Design, Place and Duration of Study: Two separate trials corresponding to sowing period (cold and warm) were laid out at each site (Bani and Tougou) in a completely randomized block design with three replicates between December 2017 and September 2018. Methodology: Each block was subdivided into two plots of 8 m² (separated from each other by 3 m break) intended to receive each variety of Moringa at each sowing period. The seeds were sown with 2 seeds by pit at 2 cm depth with spacing of 0.5 m x 0.5 m in each plot ploughed up to 30 cm. Watering was done daily during the dry season and consisted of applying 24 liters of water in each plot at two times. Vegetative growth measurements (plant height, number of leaves) were done weekly while leaf biomass production was assessed monthly from the 40th day after sowing. Results: The results showed that seedlings growth parameters and foliar biomass differed significantly (p < 0.001) among the two Moringa oleifera varieties and were influenced by the sowing period and sites. Although the two varieties grew well, Moringa oleifera var PKM-1 grew faster and produced much leaves compared to the wild or local variety. Then, greater growth attributes (height and number of leaves) and foliar biomass were noted for PKM-1. Conclusion: The warm period (March / April) appear to be the most recommendable period for the growth and biomass accumulation of the two varieties of Moringa oleifera.

In Mali, small ruminants are a necessary part of mixed crop and livestock systems, and they fulfill various roles in the food security of households as sources of meat and milk, and means of additional income to meet food and cash needs. However, small ruminant production is challenged by the poor performance of animals, which is mainly caused by inadequate nutrition and diseases. A pilot study that combined feed and health interventions was conducted in two villages, Sirakele and Zanzoni in Koutiala District in the south of the country. The objective was to assess the effects of the combined interventions on small ruminant production in mixed crop-livestock systems. Zanzoni served as control, and Sirakele received both feed and health interventions. Twenty households were randomly selected in each village and the study lasted one year, from August 2016 to August 2017. Results showed that within a year the average goat and sheep flock size in the feed and health intervention group doubled, whereas it mostly remained the same in the control group. The mortality rate was significantly lower in the treatment group than in the control one. In addition, the goats and sheep gained 42.98 ± 3.28 and 47.12 ± 2.73 g/day in the treatment group, whereas they only gained 22.59 ± 2.29 and 16.58 ± 2.74 g/day in the control group, respectively. The results confirmed that feed and health interventions significantly improved small ruminant production.

The feeding systems of small ruminants in Northern Ghana are characterized by waste which necessitates efficient use of the available feed resources, particularly in the dry season. To this end, the use of improved feed trough was demonstrated in three communities in Northern Ghana, namely Duko and Tibali in Northern region; Gia in Upper East region in the late dry, wet, and early dry seasons between March 2019 and February 2020. This study involved 10 farmers randomly selected in each community. The participating farmers were provided with one improved feed trough each which was then compared to the traditional feed trough. Data were collected on the quantity of feed offered, amount wasted, and time spent feeding the animals for six consecutive days in the three study sites across seasons. To document the perception of the farmers on the improved feed trough, a semi-structured questionnaire was administered. Results showed that improved feed trough reduced feed waste significantly in the study sites across seasons. For example, the percentages of waste in feeding the animals using the traditional feed trough were 35%, 22%, and 27% in Duko, Gia, and Tibali, respectively, in the late dry season compared to less than 1% with the improved feed trough during the same season. The farmers' perceptions were similar to the findings of this study which suggest that efficient feed utilization by small ruminants can be enhanced with the use of improved feed trough.

The expected increase in livestock production to meet its increasing demand could lead to increased water depletion through feeds production. This study aimed at estimating the amount of water depletion through feeds and its corresponding productivity in livestock within the three dominant livestock management systems namely sedentary-intensive, sedentary-extensive, and transhumance in Yatenga and Seno provinces in the Sahelian zone of Burkina Faso. Using a participatory rapid appraisal and individual interview, beneficial animal products, and services were estimated, and consequently, livestock water productivity (LWP) as the ratio of livestock products and services to the amount of water depleted. Our results showed feed resources are mainly natural pasture and crop residues are common in all the management systems though the proportion of each feed type in the feed basket and seasonal preferences varied. Consequently, water depleted for feed production was similar across the systems in both provinces and ranged from 2,500 to 3,200 m−3 ha−1 yr−1. Values for milk (40 US$US$/household) and flock offtake (313 US$/household) derived from the transhumant system were higher (P < 0.05) than those from other systems in the Seno province. With higher returns from the beneficial outputs, LWP was higher (0.11 US$ m−3) in the transhumant system than other systems in Yatenga, but similar with sedentary-intensive in Seno Province Multiple regression analysis results showed that LWP had a significant positive relationship with flock offtake in Yatenga but milk and flock offtake in Seno. The study concluded that sedentary-intensive and transhumant system with more market-oriented beneficial outputs and much dependence on less-water-depleted feed resources will improve livestock water productivity in dry areas. Besides, interventions to improve livestock water productivity through beneficial outputs must recognize the unique socio-cultural context of the livestock farmers.

The Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) is a standardized farm household survey approach which collects information on 758 variables covering household demographics, farm area, crops grown and their production, livestock holdings and their production, agricultural product use and variables underlying standard socio-economic and food security indicators such as the Probability of Poverty Index, the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, and household dietary diversity. These variables are used to quantify more than 40 different indicators on farm and household characteristics, welfare, productivity, and economic performance. Between 2015 and the beginning of 2018, the survey instrument was applied in 21 countries in Central America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. The data presented here include the raw survey response data, the indicator calculation code, and the resulting indicator values. These data can be used to quantify on- and off-farm pathways to food security, diverse diets, and changes in poverty for rural smallholder farm households., Measurement(s)Demographics • cultivated environment • Household Environment • economic performanceTechnology Type(s)SurveyFactor Type(s)country • yearSample Characteristic - OrganismHomo sapiensSample Characteristic - EnvironmentfarmSample Characteristic - LocationCentral America • Sub-Saharan Africa • Asia Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11637786

Background The number of undernourished people and the risk of micro-nutrient deficiency remain high in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Decades of policy designed to reverse the trends of food insecurity have illustrated that the causal pathways of intervention to end-point outcomes, such as nutrition, are not necessarily straightforward. Utilising proxies for dimensions of food security, this study investigates the relative importance of different pathways to food security in two subtly contrasting communities in the Sahelian and Sudanian Savanna zones of Burkina Faso. Results In Yatenga province, approximately 31% of households were classified as ‘severely food insecure’ in the ‘lean’ period. In contrast, over 84% of households sampled in Seno province were classified as being ‘severely food insecure’ in the ‘lean’ period. There were statistically significant associations between food security indicators and off-farm income, farm income and production diversity. The source of income had significantly different associations with diet diversity in the two provinces. In Yatenga province, higher gross farm income in the absence of off-farm income was predicted to result in more diverse diets; in Seno province, however, gross farm income was only predicted to result in more diverse diets when households are also earning off-farm income. Conclusions Our analysis shows that households were most differentiated by income generating pathways to food security in the ‘lean’ period. This finding should not detract from the essential role played by home-produced foods in improving food security. Rather, market-orientated agriculture and production for home consumption, as shown by households in this study, can be combined as part of a more resilient livelihood strategy. Policy needs to be targeted towards agro-ecological conditions, as well as socioeconomic factors in order to facilitate improved on-farm income, farm resilience and off-farm employment opportunities.

Food insecurity is a major challenge facing the rapidly growing population in the sub-Saharan Africa and it is a common feature in the northern region of Burkina Faso. The focus of this study was to investigate the prevalence of food insecurity in the northern region of Burkina Faso after many years of implementation of water and soil conservation techniques. A survey was carried out in six villages in the Northern Region of Burkina Faso involving 300 households to assess water and soil conservation techniques, and to examine the prevalence of food insecurity. The study was conducted between June and July 2015. Data collected was analyzed using logistic regression to identify factors influencing food insecurity in the study areas. The results also showed a high level of food insecurity affecting a large proportion of the population even during the post-harvest period when food was supposed to be available. Results showed that water and soil conservation techniques and household head education level were important factors in determining household food insecurity status. Despite the application of these techniques, food insecurity is still persistent, which raised questions about the efficiency of current agricultural production systems. In addressing food insecurity in the study area, it is necessary to reinforce the practice of combining stone bunds and inter-row ridges techniques along with proper use of fertilizer and manure. Given the persistent problem of water scarcity in Burkina Faso, and the relationship between water and food security, there is need to increase investment in water management infrastructures. Key words: Mixed crop-livestock systems, water and soil conservation techniques, food security, Burkina Faso, Sahel.

The African pastoral farming system consists of livestock and drylands crop-based production that supports an agricultural population of 38 million people of whom 13.4 million in sub-Saharan Africa are extremely poor. Human population growth has resulted in low per capita livestock and land resources, and while the farming system has options to develop agriculture, further demographic expansion will exacerbate degradation and inequality. While there is potential for agricultural development, e.g. through intensification and greater market orientation, such development needs to take into account pastoral peoples’ access rights to resources and minimize trade-offs with current land and water users. Effective drought management, a key to the success of pastoralism, relies on multiple resource management strategies and community interactions. Therefore, there is a need for policies that strengthen the resilience of agriculture and pastoralists livelihoods through, e.g. support to livestock mobility, agricultural insurance, sustainable land and water management as well as monetary and legal support for effective implementation. Interventions that strengthen opportunities for a future outside agriculture, such as education and job creation, are needed for those living in chronic poverty.

Small reservoirs (SR) are structures that capture and store run-off from upstream catchment area for multiple uses including irrigation, fishing, livestock watering, domestic purpose and groundwater recharge. Though livestock watering is one of the major uses of small reservoirs in the Volta River basin of West Africa, there is limited information on how livestock management practices co-exist with other use of SRs. This study was carried out in a typical Sudano-Sahelian zone within the Volta basin in Burkina Faso, covering five reservoirs to 1) document multiple uses of the reservoirs with a focus on their utilization for livestock production. 2) identify proximate and long-term causes of livestock-related conflicts with regard to multiple uses of the water infrastructure and 3) explore strategies to manage the SR equitably for various uses. Adult males and boys accounted for at least 60% of the users of small reservoirs in our study. Livestock watering was done mainly by adult males. In addition to provision of water for livestock, small reservoirs also contributed to feed resources for animals by providing green forage (pasture grown on residual moisture) in the dry season which accounted for at least 5% of the total dry matter diet of cattle and small ruminant in late dry season. None of the 5 small reservoirs we studied was used for irrigated fodder production. Increased competitions over the use of small reservoirs, damage to irrigated crops by the animals, and increased number of livestock using the small reservoirs were ranked as the most important causes of conflict in the communities. Peaceful co-habitation of the use of the small reservoirs for irrigated vegetable production and livestock watering are essential for reduction of the incidence of conflict.

Land endowments held by African rural communities affect the constraints and incentives they face, which in turn influence their response to development and conservation programs and policies. Availability of land with different qualities varies at different social organizational scales. While much work has focused on differences among households within villages, there has been little empirical work on variation among villages despite the fact that villages are often the sites through which land is accessed. This reflects serious difficulties in delineating village territories. Using a newly developed approach, this study estimates per capita cropland and rangeland availability of villages within two study areas in northern Burkina Faso: the provinces of Seno and Yatenga. Using georeferenced village population data, “village influence zones” were estimated taking account of each village’s population and that of surrounding villages. Combining these with land-cover classifications allowed for estimations of average per capita cropland and rangeland for 725 villages. Large variation of land endowments is observed at fine spatial scales within the two provinces. For a subset of twenty-four villages, these values were compared with informants’ estimates of cropland (fraction of cropland fallowed, fraction of cropland manured, and fraction of cropland from which crop residues are harvested) and rangeland management (seasonal presence of village livestock in village territory) parameters. Rates of crop residue harvesting were found to increase with cropland scarcity and small ruminant presence during the cropping season declined with less rangeland accessibility. The results of this study raise questions about one-size-fits-all approaches to rural development by revealing fine-scaled mosaics of village land endowments and management needs.

An on-farm study was conducted to determine the combined effects of the provision of feed and healthcare on nutrient use and growth performance of sheep during the early or late dry season. A total of 36 smallholder sheep farmers with a flock size of ≤7 was randomly selected within each of the three administrative regions in Northern Ghana. The sheep grazed on a heterogeneous natural pasture and offered crop residues as basal diet (control) or were additionally provided with a concentrate feed plus orthodox healthcare to control diseases and pests (CH) in a completely randomized block design. The provision of orthodox healthcare included scheduled control of endo- and ecto-parasites and administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Data was analyzed for the fixed effects of CH, season, or CH × season using the mixed model procedure of Genstats®. The CH regimen had no effect (P = 0.098) on intake of natural pasture but pasture intake increased (P = 0.012) during the late dry season. Sheep on the CH regime had higher DM (P = 0.026) and N (P = 0.068) digestibility and improved ADG (P = 0.001) and feed conversion efficiency (P = 0.020) than those on the control. We hypothesize that improvements in growth performance of sheep on the CH regimen could be related to availability of nutrients for growth that will otherwise have been used for repair of damaged tissues caused by gastrointestinal parasites and ticks. Sheep on the CH regimen also had a higher concentration of fecal N during the late dry season when CP concentration was relatively higher than that in the early dry season (63.2 vs 60.9 g/day DM) when CP concentration of pasture was lower.

Les volumes de lait de vache traits ont été mesurés tous les quinze jours sur une année chez 300 petits exploitants agro­pastoraux de la zone semi-aride du Sahel, dans la commune de Dantiandou au Niger. Les effectifs de vaches − adultes, en lactation et effectivement traites le matin et/ou le soir − ont été systématiquement enregistrés, ainsi que des informations sur la gestion de la pâture, la supplémentation alimentaire des vaches, et la consommation, la transformation du lait et la vente des produits laitiers. En outre, les carrières de reproduc­tion des 334 vaches ont été documentées par enquête rétros­pective. Le volume moyen par jour d’une traite a été de 0,82 ± 0,45 L. Il n’a pas été significativement différent entre la traite du matin et celle du soir, ni entre les saisons, ni entre les éle­vages. Cependant, les volumes totaux de lait trait par élevage, dont la moyenne annuelle a été de 507 ± 362 L, ont fortement varié en fonction des saisons et des élevages. En moyenne, ils ont été plus élevés dans les élevages des campements peuls récemment sédentarisés (624 ± 377 L) que dans ceux des éle­vages villageois djerma (352 ± 275 L). Cet écart était princi­palement dû à un effectif de vaches plus important dans les campements (7,1 ± 5,3 vs 4,3 ± 4,0), bien que la proportion de vaches en lactation y ait été plus faible (57 %) que dans les troupeaux villageois (73 %). Les résultats ont montré qu’une meilleure gestion par les agroéleveurs des campements avec des traites moins fréquentes, un recours plus fréquent à la pâture de nuit, à la transhumance et à une supplémentation alimentaire régulière ont contribué à améliorer l’état d’en­graissement des vaches et leurs performances reproductives. Malgré ces rendements laitiers modestes, la valeur monétaire du lait trait a représenté 16 % des revenus agricoles et non-agricoles des ménages des campements, et 7 % de ceux des villages. Les produits laitiers étaient largement consacrés à la consommation familiale : 78 % dans les campements et 84 % dans les villages.

Evaluation of lifetime productivity of individual animals in response to various interventions allows assessment of long-term investment opportunities for farmers. In order to gain a better understanding of promising feed interventions for improvement of small ruminant production in Southwestern Nigeria, a dynamic modelling approach was used to explore the effect of different feeding strategies on the lifetime productivity of West African Dwarf (WAD) goats. Modifications were made to the current version of Livestock Simulator developed for cattle production to simulate goat production systems particularly for WAD goats. Effects of changes in input parameters (quality of feed and potential adult weight) confirmed the sensitivity of the modelled weight development and reproductive performance. The values of simulated model outputs corresponded well with observed values for most of the variables, except for the pre-weaning mortality rate in the cut-and-carry system where a wide discrepancy between simulated (2.1%) and observed (23%) data was found. The scenario analysis showed that simulated goats in the free grazing system attained sexual maturity and kidded much later than those in the grazing with supplementation and the cut-and-carry systems. The simulated results suggested that goats require supplementation with protein and energy sources, in order to promote lifetime productivity, early sexual maturity and higher birth weight. In terms of economic returns based on feed cost alone, the moderately intense system produced the most profit. We therefore conclude that grazing with adequate supplementation using farm-generated feed resources offers an opportunity for improving smallholder goat production systems in West Africa.

The global increase in the demand for and production of animal-source foods (four-to five-fold increase between 1960 and 2015), which has been mostly concentrated in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), provides smallholder livestock producers with an opportunity for improving their livelihoods and food and nutrition security. However, across livestock production systems in many LMIC, limited supplies and high cost of good quality feed severely constrains exploitation of this opportunity. In many of such countries, feeds and feeding-related issues are often ranked as the primary constraint to livestock production and increased consumption of animal-source foods. Here we review the complex biophysical, socio-economic and technological challenges related to improving quality feed supply and the reasons for generally low adoption of apparently proven feed enhancement technologies. We describe also successful interventions and conclude by recommending strategies for improving quality feed supply in LMIC that account for and overcome the prevailing challenges., Highlights • Livestock production in developing countries is constrained by limited supply of quality feeds. • There are many technologies that can improve supply of quality feed for small holder producers. • Complex set of bio-physical and socio-economic factors limit the adoption of technologies and thus limit the improvement in supply of quality feed. • The failures of adoption of feed improvement technologies result from systemic constraints and inadequate attention to sociocultural and economic factors. • Success is often driven either by market incentives and or an innovative affordable approach that provides solutions to multiple problems.

Une alimentation diversifiee est necessaire pour apporter a l’organisme l’essentiel des nutriments dont il a besoin pour son fonctionnement. L’objectif de ce travail a ete d’evaluer la consommation alimentaire des menages dans la partie Nord du Burkina Faso et d’identifier les determinants de la diversite alimentaire. L’evaluation de la diversite alimentaire a ete realisee a partir du calcul du score de diversite alimentaire des menages a l’aide de l’outil RHoMIS (Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey). Une enquete a ete conduite aupres de 300 menages pour caracteriser le profil socio-economique et la consommation alimentaire au sein de ces menages. La valeur moyenne du score de diversite alimentaire des menages pour une periode de reference de 7 jours, a ete de 7,3 (0,1) durant la periode favorable et de 5,7 (0,1) durant la periode de soudure. Les cereales ont constitue l’aliment energetique de base et le niebe a represente l’essentiel des aliments proteiques, la consommation des produits d’origine animale etant faible. Les resultats montrent que le nombre de cultures produites par le menage et les revenus agricoles ne sont pas positivement associes a la diversite alimentaire elevee. Seul le revenu provenant de l’orpaillage est associe positivement a une diversite alimentaire elevee. © 2018 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Mots cles: Diversite alimentaire, determinants, sources de revenu, systeme agro-pastoral, Burkina Faso English Title: Household food diversity and animal-source foods consumption in Burkina Faso: case of three communes in Yatenga at North of the country English Abstract A diversified diet is necessary to provide essential nutrients which the body needs for its functioning. The objective of this study was to evaluate the dietary consumption of households in the Northern part of Burkina Faso and to identify the determinants of dietary diversity. Household dietary diversity was assessed by calculating household dietary diversity score (HDDS). Three hundred households were surveyed in six communities in Northern Region of Burkina Faso to characterize the socio-economic profile and food consumption of the surveyed households. A HDDS was constructed according to the Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey (RHoMIS). The HDDS was seven food groups during the normal period and about six food groups (5.7±0.1) during the difficult food period. Cereals were the staple food and cowpea provided most of the dietary protein as the consumption of animal products was generally low. The results of the regression model show that the number of food crops produced and farmers' farm cash receipts are not positively associated with high dietary diversity. Only income from gold mining contributed significantly to household dietary diversity. © 2018 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved. Keywords: Dietary diversity, food types, income sources, agro-pastoral system, Burkina Faso

Inequalities in food access and consumption underlie the persistence of food insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa. While there has been important work documenting differences among rural households and demographic groups, there remains comparatively little work documenting differences of food consumption within rural African households. To address this gap, a novel approach was developed to monitor differences in food consumption within 120 rural households in Burkina Faso with a focus on women and children. At monthly intervals (across 11 months), 24-hour recall data were collected of the amount of grain prepared and allocated among eating groups, the groups of household members eating from separate bowls. Seven-day recall data were also collected for the instances of major food groups accompanying grain dishes and allocation of these accompaniments among eating groups. Eating groups are generally segregated by gender and age. Multi-level regression analyses (with household and month as random effect variables) were performed with grain consumption and food group bias regressed on the fixed factors of female and child fractions of eating group adult-male equivalents and the genealogical position of eating group leaders. Results show eating group composition significantly affects grain consumption as mediated by the genealogical position of eating group leaders. Depending on genealogical position, female- or children- dominated groups can display higher, or more commonly, lower consumption rates than male groups. Consumption of non-grain accompaniments shows no significant bias by gender or age except for meat, which is consumed more by male groups led by a member of the household head’s generation. These results illustrate the complex interplay of gender, age, and household structure in shaping differences in food consumption within rural households.

Les études sur la transhumance ont souvent ciblé les pasteurs – notamment peuls – des zones sahéliennes. Pour en donner une autre perspective, la pré­sente étude a été centrée sur les pratiques de la transhumance dans la zone sou­dano-sahélienne du Mali en intégrant la perception des agriculteurs et des pas­teurs sédentaires concernés par la transhumance dans les zones d’accueil. Les scénarios envisageables pour le futur des systèmes pastoraux ont aussi été ana­lysés. Les données ont été collectées à travers des groupes de discussion et des enquêtes individuelles. Les résultats ont montré que la transhumance n’était plus le seul fait des populations pastorales peules mais concernait diverses ethnies. Plus de 70 % des agriculteurs, des pasteurs sédentaires et des pasteurs transhu­mants interviewés dans les deux sites de l’étude ont rapporté que les avantages de la transhumance pour les communautés d’accueil en termes de dépôt de fumier dans les champs des cultures décroissaient. Quand bien même la majo­rité des répondants ont rapporté une augmentation des pratiques de la trans­humance au cours des trente dernières années, ils prévoyaient leur diminution dans les années à venir. L’augmentation de la compétition autour des ressources pastorales entre les membres des communautés d’accueil et les pasteurs trans­humants dans le sud du Mali crée une situation d’impasse et des frustrations se manifestant par une méfiance mutuelle.

Evaluation of existing and potential feed resources was conducted in Orodora district in the Southern region of Burkina Faso using Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST). The assessment was carried out through focus group discussions and individual interviews in Mahon and Sayaga communities in Orodara district. The study sites were characterized by mixed crop-livestock production systems. Seventy-percent of cropping activities were focused on fruit tree cultivation while food crop production accounted for the rest. Livestock species (predominantly local breeds) in the area included cattle sheep, goat, pig, poultry and donkey which are kept for different purposes. The main source of household income is crop production while livestock production contributed 35 and 45% to the household income in Mahon and Sayaga, respectively. In both study sites, natural grazing contributes highest (49 and 64% respectively) to the dry matter (DM) content of the total diet. Cultivated fodder contributed 1% of dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy and crude protein to the total diet of the existing feed resource in Mahon, while farmers in Sayaga depended more on purchased feed than in Mahon. Constraints to livestock production in the study sites included shortage of water in the dry season, insufficient quantity and quality of feed in the late dry season of the year and high cost of veterinary drugs and services. To mitigate these constraints farmers suggested an integrated approach to improve livestock production through: construction of small reservoir to provide water for human and animal consumption; training on the integration of forage legume into both tree and arable cropping, and efficient utilization of available feed resources; establishment of a veterinary service and drug centre in the village; better management of the existing water resources. Key words: Animal nutrition, livestock productivity, feed resources, feed scarcity.

Recurring forage and water scarcity in the Sahelian zone of West Africa, especially in the dry season, has led to increased livestock movement into Sudano-Sahelian and Sudano-Guinean zones in the region. This increased movement by transhumant herders has resulted in growing competition over natural resources. Despite the strong presence of transhumant herds in the Sudano-Sahelian/Sudano-Guinean zones of Mali in the past 30 years, there has been limited research on the practice of transhumance in these zones, compared to several studies in the Sahelian zone. In this paper, we present how various actors in two districts in the Sudano-Sahelian/Sudano-Guinea zones of Mali perceived the effect of transhumant practices on natural resource management. Results from the study showed that more than 75% of all categories of respondents in both study sites perceived a decline in availability of forage resources and water as a result of the increased number of transhumant herders in their communities. Furthermore, a greater proportion of farmers and settled pastoralists in both study sites responded that there has been a decline in species richness of the vegetation. In contrast, more than 50% of transhumant herders did not see any change in species richness of natural vegetation due to their presence. They argued that the observed decline in species richness of the vegetation is due to climate change. Education level, location and socio-professional categories tended to be the key factors influencing respondent’s perception on the impact of transhumant practices on natural resource management. As the perceived impact of transhumant practices depends on socio-professional groups, it is necessary to engage all the actors on how to effectively manage the presence of transhumant herders, in order to promote sustainable use of natural resources in southern Mali. Besides, more research is needed to assess the validity of the reported perceptions in this study.

Feed and grazing management affect both the quantity and quality of animal manure and consequently nutrient cycling in the mixed crop-livestock systems in West Africa Sahel. Dietary measures can significantly influence the composition of manure and hence it’s agricultural value. High nutrient feed will generally result in higher nutrient content of the manure whereas a decline in feed quality will generally lead to increase in the indigestible fractions in the feeds. Apart from feed and feeding practices, grazing management also affects the amount and nutrient contents of manure that can be recycled to the cropland. When animals are used to deposit manure in the crop field, conflicts often arise between the need for animals to graze long enough for adequate feed intake and the need to collect manure. This paper examines the effects of feed and grazing management on livestock-mediated nutrient transfers in mixed crop-livestock systems in West Africa Sahel. Results from grazing trials in Niger showed that nitrogen voided in faeces follow the trend of nitrogen contents in the feed for grazing cattle. Animals that had additional grazing time in the night consistently had higher forage intake and consequently, higher average daily gain than those that grazed only during the day in all seasons. However, additional grazing at night reduced the amount of manure that could be collected for crop fields unless the grazing location is crop field. It is therefore necessary to optimize the animals’ time for foraging to maintain or increase livestock output in terms of meat and/or milk, and for manuring to sustain soil fertility and hence crop production.

The role of herbivorous livestock in supporting the sustainability of the farming systems in which they are found is complex and sometimes conflicting. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the integration of livestock into farming systems is important for sustainable agriculture as the recycling of nutrients for crop production through returns of animal manure is a central element of the dominant mixed crop-livestock systems. Sustainable agriculture has been widely advocated as the main practical pathway to address the challenge of meeting the food needs of the rapidly growing population in SSA while safeguarding the needs of future generations. The objective of this paper is to review the state of knowledge of the role of herbivores in sustainable intensification of key farming systems in SSA. The pathways to sustainable agriculture in SSA include intensification of production and livelihood diversification. Sustainable agricultural practices in SSA have focused on intensification practices which aim to increase the output : input ratio through increasing use of inputs, introduction of new inputs or use of existing inputs in a new way. Intensification of livestock production can occur through increased and improved fodder availability, genetic production gains, improved crop residue use and better nutrient recycling of manure. Livestock deliver many ‘goods’ in smallholder farming systems in SSA including improving food and nutrition security, increased recycling of organic matter and nutrients and the associated soil fertility amendments, adding value to crop residues by turning them into nutrient-rich foods, income generation and animal traction. Narratives on livestock ‘bads’ or negative environmental consequences have been largely shaped by the production conditions in the Global North but livestock production in SSA is a different story. In SSA, livestock are an integral component of mixed farming systems and they play key roles in supporting the livelihoods of much of the rural population. None-the-less, the environmental consequences of livestock production on the continent cannot be ignored. To enhance agricultural sustainability in SSA, the challenge is to optimize livestock’s role in the farming systems by maximizing livestock ‘goods’ while minimizing the ‘bads’. This can be through better integration of livestock into the farming systems, efficient nutrient management systems, and provision of necessary policy and institutional support.

With mixed crop-livestock systems projected to be the principal source of food in developing countries in the coming decades, opportunities exist for smallholders to participate and benefit from emerging crop and livestock markets in the Volta Basin. Given the economic, social and environmental vulnerability due to high water scarcity and variability in the basin, improvements in agricultural water management (AWM) are needed to ensure sustainable benefits. A survey was conducted among 326 crop-livestock households in four water scarce sites of the basin in Burkina Faso and Ghana to characterize households in terms of access to water, services and information, AWM intensity and livelihoods, and to explore the linkages between these characteristics. The sources of water were more diverse for study sites in Ghana than in Burkina, allowing different types of AWM strategies. Most of the farmers perceived a strong positive impact of AWM strategies on their livelihoods. Almost 70% of the variation in livelihood assets was explained by variation in AWM intensity, affecting mainly food consumption, sources of income and housing index. With increasing access to water, services and information, AWM intensity significantly increased, as well as labour for water-related activities and food consumption. This increase in AWM was significantly related to an increase in livelihood assets (R 2 = 52%). Policies should be developed to improve access to information and services as well as access to market in rural areas of the Volta Basin, to enhance positive impact of AWM strategies on livelihoods of the rural households.

A new approach was developed to evaluate the implications of the spatiotemporal variability of green vegetation for the dispersion of livestock that is required to access quality forage in semi-arid Africa. Maximum NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) at 1 km2 resolution was determined for concentric rings (0–31 km radii) around 227 individual sample locations within the study area for 14 dates (between 1 April to 1 November) annually over the 2000–2010 period. A sigmoidal curve was fitted to points within the maximum NDVI × distance radii space to determine the asymptote distance (AD) – the radius at which further dispersion from the sample location does not lead to significant gains in access to green forage. AD was found to: increase with latitude (or increasing aridity); decline as the rainy season proceeds; and show no trend over the 2000–2010 period. These results introduce much-needed empirical data to current debates surrounding the scales of governance to support livestock mobility.

In West African Sahel cities, livestock husbandry such as smallholder dairy production and livestock (cattle, sheep and goat) fattening has become popular among livestock owners to meet food needs for the household, and for income generation. The increasing importance of urban and suburban agriculture, particularly livestock husbandry in the region, has led to a rapid increase in livestock populations in most of the cities. As a result of this increase and the associated growth in the demand for feeds, feed markets have sprung up in many cities and towns of West Africa’s Sahel. A survey of livestock feed markets was conducted in five markets in Bamako, Mali. Prices of livestock feeds were monitored monthly from January to December 2010. In addition, feed samples were collected from the markets for laboratory analysis to determine their nutritional quality. Results showed that the prices of cowpea hay and groundnut haulm were consistently higher than those of other feeds throughout the year. The price of cowpea hay ranged from 367 FCFA/kg dry matter (DM) (1 USD ≈ 500 FCFA) in October, i.e. immediately after harvest, to 667 FCFA/kg DM in August, i.e. in the wet season. Results also showed that there was no relationship between price and quality for all feed types. However, prices and quality of feeds differed significantly across seasons suggesting that the season was a major determinant for the price of livestock feeds in suburban areas of West Africa’s Sahel.

Agricultural water management (AWM) strategies have been extensively studied and promoted in Burkina Faso during the past four decades. However, rainfall variability and water access continue to limit agricultural production of most of the smallholder farming systems of the country. Our goals in this paper are: (i) to review the evolution of AWM development with respect to the technologies promoted, while emphasizing the context, approaches, investments and outcomes; (ii) to explore the linkages between the evolution of AWM projects, their outcomes and their impacts on rural livelihoods; and (iii) to provide recommendations to enhance the impact of new development initiatives. Between 1970 and 2009, 195 bilateral and multilateral AWM projects were implemented in Burkina Faso, corresponding to an investment of US$ 641 million.The study of the evolution of these projects allows one to assess the reasons for their success or failure. While projects involved many technical solutions, their actual impact on livelihoods is debatable. Using an outcome–impacts framework, we provide recommendations for enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of investments in agricultural water management.

Transhumant pastoralism is one of the dominant livestock production systems in West Africa, and it is characterized by seasonal and cyclical movement of varying degrees between complementary ecological areas. The common pattern of transhumance is moving herds from areas with pasture and water scarcity such as the Sahelian zone to areas where the forage and water are found, often in the sub-humid zone. Whereas the transhumant herds from the Sahel are mainly Zebu breeds, endemic ruminant livestock (ERL) are the dominant breeds in sub-humid zone of West Africa because of their tolerance to tsetse-borne trypanosomosis disease. These livestock fulfill different functions in the livelihood of rural communities in the region. To identify potential areas of interventions for sustainable natural resource management to improve ERL productivity, a desk study that included spatial mapping was performed to review and document the existing knowledge on transhumance in West Africa. Additionally, group discussions were held to analyze the (actual or potential) effects of transhumant herds on natural resource management and ERL in the sub-humid zone. This study covered sub-humid zone in The Gambia, Guinea, Mali and Senegal. The key question we addressed in this study was as follows: What are the key trends and changes in transhumant pastoralism and how do these impact sustainable management of natural resources including endemic livestock? The results of the desk study and group discussions showed that there have been more southerly movements by transhumant pastoralists into the sub-humid zone over the past three decades and this has contributed to growing competition for grazing resources. The presence of transhumant herds in the sub-humid zone has a potential impact on management and conservation of ERL through crossbreeding with transhumant Zebu breeds from the Sahel but only study sites in Mali showed a high risk.

Over the past 10 years, mobility of livestock has been portrayed as increasing the resilience of rural households in semi-arid Africa to climate change and variability. With this recognition, there has been important work characterizing livestock mobility and the barriers to it. This paper adds to this work by addressing two gaps in the literature: 1. An understanding in the variation of livestock mobility practices among communities; and 2. An understanding of rural peoples’ views of the advantages and disadvantages of livestock mobility as well as the factors affecting their decisions about herd movements. A mixed-methods approach was adopted to analyze data collected by household survey and group interviews conducted in 32 multi-ethnic villages in Mali and Niger spanning the 12.5° N to 16.5° N latitudinal range. The results of regression and qualitative analyses show that: 1. A large fraction of rural households rely on livestock as part of their livelihood strategies; 2. Grazing management of a large majority of village livestock depends on movements outside of the village territory, especially during the rainy season; 3. The mobility of village livestock is not strongly influenced by the village’s sociprofessional composition (farmer, herder, fisher, artisan..etc.); and 4. The prevalence of extra-village movements of village livestock (sheep and cattle) is higher in areas of higher population density. Despite the advantages of livestock mobility cited by informants, longer-distance movements are inhibited by risks associated with climatic, land-use, and sociopolitical change. Herd managers make decisions using diverse information about potential destinations with greater trust of information gathered by themselves or close kin. The implications of these findings for livestock management and policy in the region are discussed.

Announcement from Editorial Board The following article published in Vol.3 No.3 2014 has been retracted. Title: Water Balance Dynamics in Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems of Northern Ghana: Unraveling the Interactions between Farm-Level and Landscape Fluxes in the Face of Climate Change Authors: F. Kizito1*, E. K. Panyan2, A. Ayantunde3, D. Bossio1, N. Karbo2, F. K. Avornyo2, K. Tengan2 AJCC Editorial Board November 26, 2014

Feed shortage in urban and peri-urban areas has triggered the emergence of feed markets in Northern Ghana. These markets were surveyed at three locations (Tamale, Bolgatanga, and Wa markets) to determine types and prices of feedstuffs sold across seasons; early dry (November-January), late dry (February-April), early wet (May-July), and main wet (August-October). Semi-structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Three samples of each feed type in the markets were bought from three different sellers per market in each season. The samples were oven dried to constant weight and price/kg DM of each feed determined. The total respondents were 169. Out of this number, 41% were feed sellers, 46% buyers, and 13% retailers. The feedstuffs found were crop residues (groundnut haulm and cowpea haulm), agro-industrial by-products (bran of maize, rice, and sorghum), fresh grasses (Rotteboellia cochinchinensis), and local browses (Ficus sp. and Pterocarpus erinaceous). Prices of feeds differed (P 0.05) among markets and were higher in Bolgatanga than Tamale and Wa markets. Prices of cereal bran were not different (P 0.05) in all seasons but that of crop residues were higher (P 05) in early to late dry season than the wet season. Majority (90%) of respondents opined that the feed market will expand due to increasing number of livestock population in the peri-urban areas.