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A Thesis for applying for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Veterinary Science. Väitekiri filosoofiadoktori kraadi taotlemiseks loomaarstiteaduse erialal. Animal transportation, which is increasing due to higher demand for meat and the centralisation of slaughterhouses, and climate changes are challenging for the animal husbandry sector and can have negative effects on animal health and welfare. The present thesis is the summary of research work carried out in Australia and Inner Mongolia (China), focusing mainly on the transport of sheep in different conditions and climates, and on public opinions on animal welfare. The importance of animals´ welfare during their transport is a critical problem that, if addressed, may reduce mortality and injury during transport and avoid economic losses. Climate change, which affects the animals´ environment, may lead to a higher risk of stress and mortality rates during animal transport. It is fundamental to determine if the current minimum standards for livestock transportation are still adequate. One of the world’s longest sea transport routes of live sheep for slaughter is from Australia to the Middle East. As shown in the results, heat stress is a major cause of mortality in shipments of sheep, particularly in sheep leaving Australia in the Southern Hemisphere winter to arrive in the Middle Eastern summer, and from this work it is suggested that shipments offloading at multiple ports should not offload at the hottest port, Doha, first. Following this work, the Australian Government changed its regulations regarding the transport of animals by sea. Cold stress can also have an impact on sheep wellbeing, thus it is important to establish if alternative truck designs and different transport methods can affect and improve sheep welfare during their transportation in cold temperatures. The sheep most at risk of the adverse effects of cold temperatures were found to be those that were transported in open vehicles, those transported for a longer time, and those that were not fed before transport. Understanding and public opinion have always helped to improve regulations and laws in general. In China, few studies have been carried out on public opinion on animal welfare. This study can improve the concept of animal welfare in China and help establish laws and guidelines on animal welfare during transport. It is concluded that animal welfare is of importance to the Chinese consumer, in particular because of its connection to food quality. Suurenev nõudlus liha järele, tapamajade tsentralisatsiooni tõttu kasvav loomavedu ning kliimamuutused on loomakasvatussektori väljakutsed, mis võivad avaldada negatiivset mõju loomade tervisele ja heaolule. Käesolev väitekiri on kokkuvõte Austraalias ja Hiina Sise-Mongoolias korraldatud uurimistööst, mis keskendus peamiselt lammaste transpordile erinevates veo- ja kliimatingimustes ning avalikkuse arusaamadele loomade heaolust. Loomade veoaegne heaolu on kriitilise tähtsusega probleem, mille lahendamine võib vähendada suremust ja vigastusi vedude ajal ning vältida majanduslikku kahju. Keskkonda mõjutavad kliimamuutused võivad suurendada stressi ja suremuse riski loomade transpordil. Oluline on kindlaks teha, kas kehtivad elusloomade veo miinimumstandardid on piisavad. Üks maailma pikimaid eluslammaste mereveoteid kulgeb Austraaliast Lähis-Itta. Uurimistöö tulemustest selgus, et kuumastress on lammaste veol suremuse peamine põhjus, eriti kui pealelaadimine toimub Austraalias lõunapoolkera talvel ning mahalaadimine suvises Lähis-Idas, millest tulenevalt anti soovitus, et kui teekonnal toimub lammaste mahalaadimine mitmes sadamas, ei tohiks esimene mahalaadimine toimuda kõige kuumemas Doha sadamas. Käesoleva töö tulemuste põhjal muutis Austraalia valitsus oma loomade meretranspordi alaseid eeskirju. Ka külmastress võib avaldada mõju lammaste heaolule, mistõttu on oluline välja selgitada, kas veoki konstruktsiooni ja veoruumis valitsevate tingimuste muutmine võivad mõjutada ja parendada lammaste heaolu nende transportimisel külmades oludes. Leiti, et kõige enam ohustasid ja kahjustasid külmakraadid lambaid, keda veeti lahtistes sõidukites, kelle teekonnad olid pikemad ning keda enne transporti ei söödetud. Publication of this thesis is supported by the Estonian University of Life Sciences.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (hereinafter the Quad) is an alignment between Australia, India, Japan and the United States of America against a perceived threat to a rules-based order and of a rising China. With the majority of its early development occurring in 2007, the Quad ceased in 2008 due to Australia’s withdrawal, but was renewed in 2017. Given that a realist understanding of alignment formation posits that balancing occurs as a response to system-level factors, such as an imbalance of power or threat, and an expectation that a continued or even growing imbalance of threat implies continued balancing efforts, this fluctuation in Australia’s alignment decisions in a short time period presents the puzzle of this study. The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to explain the deviation in Australia’s alignment decisions in the Quad (from alignment (2007), to withdrawal (2008), and back (2017) to alignment) in the face of a perception of continuous presence of threat from China (i.e. of a continued imbalance of threat). To do so, this study turns to balance of threat for an analysis of the system-level pressures contributing to Australia’s alignment decisions; and a variant of realist thought through the works of neoclassical realists and other scholars to perform an analysis of the impact and influence of specific domestic-level factors (deemed domestic-level costs for the purpose of this thesis) on the perceived cost-benefit of external alignment by Australian decision makers. This study thereby applies these theoretical frameworks to an analysis of Australia’s alignment decisions in the context of the Quad during the period in question, through a combination of document analysis and qualitative content analysis. This thesis finds that while the perception of China’s threat remained consistent and high, it was changes at the domestic-level that triggered the back-and-forth of Australian political leaders’ alignment decisions. With these findings, this study contributes to highlighting the importance in taking domestic-level factors into consideration in the examination of balancing behaviour and alignment decisions, as well as a deeper understanding of alignment formation, and the Quad itself., https://www.ester.ee/record=b5407033*est

https://www.ester.ee/record=b5451868

https://www.ester.ee/record=b5357108*est

http://www.ester.ee/record=b4484706*est

http://www.ester.ee/record=b4417500~S1*est

http://tartu.ester.ee/record=b2656172~S6*est

http://tartu.ester.ee/record=b2614282~S1*est

Väitekirja elektrooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsioone., Austraalias oli ektomükoriisaseente (ehk siis seente, kes elavad vastastikku kasulikus kooselus puittaimedega) liigirikkus suurem kui Aafrika erinevates ökosüsteemides. Austraalia seenekoosluste liigirikkus oli võrreldav põhjapoolkera parasvöötmega. Nimelt on leitud, et ektomükoriisaseente puhul on suurem liigirikkus parasvöötmes kui troopikas. Kuna Aafrika kõik proovialad jäid troopikasse, siis oli seal ka madal liigirikkus. Austraalias olid kõige tavalisemad seened rühmadest vöödikud, tomentellid-lehternahkised ja pilvikud-riisikad. Aafrikas olid puravikud vöödikute asemel. Veel uuriti, kuidas peremeespuud mõjutavad seente liigirikkust. Enamus peremeespuudest ei kasvanud mingite kindlate seeneliikidega koos. Erandiks oli Pomaderris apetala Tasmaanias, mis kasvas koos temale omaste seentega. Aafrikas eukalüptiistanduses eelistasid kindlat peremeest kolm Austraaliast sissetoodud seeneliiki, mis kasvasid ainult koos eukalüptidega. Enamus looduslikult Aafrikas kasvavatest seentest olid võimelised kasvama koos kohalike ja sissetoodud puudega. Austraaliast pärit üheksast seeneliigist neli olid võimelised kasvama koos kohalike puudega., Species richness was highest in Tasmanian wet sclerophyll forests and was comparable with species richness in Holarctic region. In contrast, in Africa, species richness was lower, and fewer fungal lineages were present. Tropical ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungal communities are phylogenetically highly similar in different continents. There was a strong host preference among EcM fungi in a Tasmanian wet sclerophyll forest. Compared to other hosts, Pomaderris apetala hosted highly different EcM fungal communities. However, host preference was not detected among the most common fungal species in Africa. Host shifts among ectomycorrhizal fungi may occur particularly commonly, when the roots of trees intermingle. These host shifts may lead to naturalization and invasion of the introduced Eucalyptus species or spread of cointroduced EcM fungal species as detected in other ecosystems.

https://www.ester.ee/record=b4004666*est

http://tartu.ester.ee/record=b1211367~S1*est

Digiteeritud Euroopa Regionaalarengu Fondi rahastusel, projekti "Eesti teadus- ja õppekirjandus" (2014-2020.12.03.21-0848) raames., https://www.ester.ee/record=b1542416*est

Digiteeritud Euroopa Regionaalarengu Fondi rahastusel, projekti "Eesti teadus- ja õppekirjandus" (2014-2020.12.03.21-0848) raames., https://www.ester.ee/record=b1217388*est

https://www.ester.ee/record=b1585973*est