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The effect of the anti‐glaring (AG) layer on autostereoscopic displays is discussed in this paper. A simulation platform based on the ray‐tracing method and the Snell’s law is introduced to provide the theoretical analysis of the crosstalk induced by the AG effect. The experimental data is found to be in coincidence with the simulation result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conflict between vergence and accommodation is the main perceptual factors contributing to visual discomfort when viewing autostereoscopic display. The key factors relevant to the accommodation and vergence are the ambient illumination and the contrast. The current study was a 2 × 3 × 3 mixed design comparing VFSI and VIMS symptoms between 2D and 3D video clips with three contrast levels under three ambient illumination levels on the autostereoscopic display. Twenty participants were required to evaluate the degree of discomfort by filing out questionnaires after watching those video clips. According to the result analysis, the 3D viewing participants reported more severe symptoms compared to 2D. The moderate contrast conditions were found to be the optimum for viewing comfort. The difference between VFSI and VIMS symptoms become larger with increasing contrast. The results also suggested the optimum 3D illumination condition should not be too high to effectively relieve visual discomfort. VIMS symptoms were more sensitive to the changes in ambient illumination than VFSI. Moreover, significant interaction between contrast and ambient illumination was found. Participants felt the most comfortable in the combination effect of moderate level of contrast and the high level of ambient illumination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a highly accurate dynamic crosstalk evaluation method for an eye‐tracking based autostereoscopic display. The method using a general‐purpose luminance meter and a virtual facial image for eye‐tracking enables the accurate crosstalk measurement while minimizing artifact caused by misalignment between the presented eye's position and detected eye's position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A three-dimensional (3D) cursor for autostereoscopic 3D displays was proposed. The cursor is based on voxel patterns. In the experiments, the cursor position is interactively controlled in 3D by a computer mouse with a scroll wheel. A computer program operates in the image plane of the 3D display directly without complicated geometric calculations. The results were verified in a 3D display with a parallax barrier and can be applied to other types of autostereoscopic displays.

A conceptual layout of the direct‐view autostereoscopic imaging comprises a real‐amplitude (hereinafter — amplitude) sum AIΣ imager and an amplitude ratio AIΞ imager. The AIΣ imager reproduces the sums of the brightness values of two adjacent image elements of the left L and right R view images. The AIΞ imager reproduces the ratio of the brightness values of the L or R adjacent view images to the sum of them. The mutual filtering of the AIΣ and AIΞ amplitude distributions during two operation cycles forms L and R full‐screen resolution images in the left ZL and right ZR observation zones. The layout geometry theoretically allows to improve accommodation‐convergence matching for human (observer) visual system as two informational matrices located at different distances from the observer's eyes. The AIΣ and AIΞ imagers can be implemented in the form of conventional amplitude liquid crystal (LC) matrices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We implement a time‐sequential autostereoscopic display with a multidirectional backlight system and an eye tracker. The proposed multidirectional backlight uses Bragg mismatched reconstruction of volume‐holographic optical elements. The eye tracker feeds back eye positions, and the system provides directional and time‐sequential parallax images. Through this display, viewers could observe vivid three‐dimensional images with high resolution, low crosstalk, and smooth motion parallax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Visualizing objects as they are perceived in the real world is often critical in our daily experiences. We previously focused on objects' surface glossiness visualized with a 3D display and found that a multi-view 3D display reproduces perceived glossiness more accurately than a 2D display. This improvement of glossiness reproduction can be explained by the fact that a glossy surface visualized by a multi-view 3D display appropriately provides luminance differences between the two eyes and luminance changes accompanying the viewer's lateral head motion. In the present study, to determine the requirements of a multi-view 3D display for the accurate reproduction of perceived glossiness, we developed a simulator of a multi-view 3D display to independently and simultaneously manipulate the viewpoint interval and the magnitude of the optical inter-view crosstalk. Using the simulator, we conducted a psychophysical experiment and found that glossiness reproduction is most accurate when the viewpoint interval is small and there is just a small (but not too small) amount of crosstalk. We proposed a simple yet perceptually valid model that quantitatively predicts the reproduction accuracy of perceived glossiness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A three-dimensional (3D) cursor for autostereoscopic 3D displays was proposed. The cursor is based on voxel patterns. In the experiments, the cursor position is interactively controlled in 3D by a computer mouse with a scroll wheel. A computer program operates in the image plane of the 3D display directly without complicated geometric calculations. The results were verified in a 3D display with a parallax barrier and can be applied to other types of autostereoscopic displays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This research aimed to present a novel glasses-free distance random-dot stereotest system (GFDRDSS) using an eye-tracking method.Methods: A single-view autostereoscopic display applying a backlight control system combined with an eye-tracking method and the corresponding random-dot stereotest software were developed to create a GFDRDSS with a viewing distance of 5 m. The stereoacuity of 12 subjects with normal eye position was evaluated using the Randot Stereotest, Stereoscopic Test Charts vol. 3 (Yan’s Charts), Distance Randot® Stereotest, and GFDRDSS.Results: The GFDRDSS could provide distinct and stable glasses-free stereoscopic perception even while the subject was moving their head. It could evaluate binocular disparities of 40–2,400 arcsec. Eleven subjects with normal near visual acuity had fine near stereovision (20–60 arcsec) using the Randot stereotest and Yan’s Charts. Under refractive correction, 10 subjects had fine stereovision (≤60 arcsec) using the GFDRDSS at a distance of 5 m, and 9 had fine stereovision using the Distance Randot® Stereotest at 3 m. Other subjects described the 100 arcsec-level stereograms correctly. The results exhibited a concordance of stereoacuity within one degrade between the two distance stereotests.Conclusion: The proposed GFDRDSS can alternately project a couple of random-dot stereograms to the subjects’ eyes and provide a glasses-free distance stereotest, which showed good concordance with the Distance Randot® Stereotest. More data are needed for statistical studies.

Purpose: The visualization of remote surgical scenes is the key to realizing the remote operation of surgical robots. However, current non-endoscopic surgical robot systems lack an effective visualization tool to offer sufficient surgical scene information and depth perception. Methods: We propose a novel autostereoscopic surgical visualization system integrating 3D intraoperative scene reconstruction, autostereoscopic 3D display, and augmented reality-based image fusion. The preoperative organ structure and the intraoperative surface point cloud are obtained from medical imaging and the RGB-D camera, respectively, and aligned by an automatic marker-free intraoperative registration algorithm. After registration, preoperative meshes with precalculated illumination and intraoperative textured point cloud are blended in real time. Finally, the fused image is shown on a 3D autostereoscopic display device to achieve depth perception. Results: A prototype of the autostereoscopic surgical visualization system was built. The system had a horizontal image resolution of 1.31 mm, a vertical image resolution of 0.82 mm, an average rendering rate of 33.1 FPS, an average registration rate of 20.5 FPS, and average registration errors of approximately 3 mm. A telesurgical robot prototype based on 3D autostereoscopic display was built. The quantitative evaluation experiments showed that our system achieved similar operational accuracy (1.79 ± 0.87 mm) as the conventional system (1.95 ± 0.71 mm), while having advantages in terms of completion time (with 34.11% reduction) and path length (with 35.87% reduction). Post-experimental questionnaires indicated that the system was user-friendly for novices and experts. Conclusion: We propose a 3D surgical visualization system with augmented instruction and depth perception for telesurgery. The qualitative and quantitative evaluation results illustrate the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed system. Therefore, it shows great prospects in robotic surgery and telesurgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

3D volume is a common type of data collected in medical and life science domains. Existing visualization systems of volume data mainly use 2D displays. However, the complexity of volumes makes it challenging to comprehend the internal structures. Volume rendering with autostereoscopic displays can provide depth perception to improve understanding of complex structures. In this paper, we present an interactive volume rendering method for autostereoscopic display. The method is implemented through the combination of dynamic ray casting and hand gesture interaction. The proposed rendering algorithm brightens the organs intersected with an interaction plane and presents different appearances controlled by the user. We further build an application fusing the foreground virtual volume and the background actual human body. The application shows the prospects of our algorithm and system in education and clinical tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A general new method for directional illumination 3D display is proposed. • The flicker in traditional temporal and spatial directional backlight 3D displays is eliminated. • Large angles, low crosstalk, flickering-free, high resolution, and compatibility with 2D autostereoscopy is demonstrated. • The crosstalk is optimized by the proposal of pixel re-encoding arrangement. A directionally illuminated pixel-selective flickering-free autostereoscopic display is proposed and demonstrated. The system consists of the U-shaped backlight, the mix-grooves cylindrical Fresnel lens array, a light shaping diffuser film, and a liquid crystal display with a directional light splitting element. Simulation is applied to obtain the crosstalk and the illuminance distribution at each viewpoint, which serves as design guideline for system structure and component parameters. The simulation and experimental results indicate that directional projection of parallax images is achieved for a high-quality flickering-free autostereoscopic display with a large viewing angle and continuous viewing volume. The crosstalk between left- and right-channels can be controlled down to 5.49%, while the resolution for each eye is more than a full HD. Furthermore, the alternative flickering in high refresh rate directional backlight autostereoscopic displays is removed by the proposed system, resulting in a high-quality and flickering-free viewing experience for multiple users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have developed the eye‐sensing light field display (ELFD), which lets the user experience a virtual space as if it were real. This is made possible by real‐time light field rendering with its optical design based on eye‐sensing and by taking into account human perceptual characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new S‐Class introduced a newly developed 3D instrument cluster display as one of its highlights. The display enables real depth perception without the need for glasses and without compromising visual quality. This paper describes the requirements, system design and technical realization of a fully position‐adaptive autostereoscopic display. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The autostereoscopic display is a promising way towards three-dimensional-display technology since it allows humans to perceive stereoscopic images with naked eyes. However, it faces great challenges from low resolution, narrow viewing angle, ghost images, eye strain, and fatigue. Nowadays, the prevalent liquid crystal display (LCD), the organic light-emitting diode (OLED), and the emerging micro light-emitting diode (Micro-LED) offer more powerful tools to tackle these challenges. First, we comprehensively review various implementations of autostereoscopic displays. Second, based on LCD, OLED, and Micro-LED, their pros and cons for the implementation of autostereoscopic displays are compared. Lastly, several novel implementations of autostereoscopic displays with Micro-LED are proposed: a Micro-LED light-stripe backlight with an LCD, a high-resolution Micro-LED display with a micro-lens array or a high-speed scanning barrier/deflector, and a transparent floating display. This work could be a guidance for Micro-LED applications on autostereoscopic displays.

A geometric model of an autostereoscopic 3D display is described herein. This model is based on the geometry of typical display devices and on the projective transformations that provide periodicity in the projective space. The formulas for the transformations between regions and spaces are provided. The model can be applied to the study of an operation of the multiview, integral, plenoptic, and light-field displays. A practical application considered in this paper is the multiview wavelet transform.

Due to the nature of holoscopic 3D (H3D) imaging technology, H3D cameras can capture more angular information than their conventional 2D counterparts. This is mainly attributed to the macrolens array which captures the 3D scene with slightly different viewing angles and generates holoscopic elemental images based on fly's eyes imaging concept. However, this advantage comes at the cost of decreasing the spatial resolution in the reconstructed images. On the other hand, the consumer market is looking to find an efficient multiview capturing solution for the commercially available autostereoscopic displays. The autostereoscopic display provides multiple viewers with the ability to simultaneously enjoy a 3D viewing experience without the need for wearing 3D display glasses. This paper proposes a low-delay content adaptation framework for converting a single holoscopic 3D computer-generated image into multiple viewpoint images. Furthermore, it investigates the effects of varying interpolation step sizes on the converted multiview images using the nearest neighbour and bicubic sampling interpolation techniques. In addition, it evaluates the effects of changing the macrolens array size, using the proposed framework, on the perceived visual quality both objectively and subjectively. The experimental work is conducted on computer-generated H3D images with different macrolens sizes. The experimental results show that the proposed content adaptation framework can be used to capture multiple viewpoint images to be visualised on autostereoscopic displays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Approaches to control the moiré effect are discussed. To improve the image quality, especially in the autostereoscopic three-dimensional displays, the minimization of the moiré effect is considered, including the minimization by angle, by period, by distance, etc. Also, less known nontraditional but effective approaches, such as spectral trajectories, statistical treatment, convolution-based minimization, and the amplitude of the moiré patterns, are at issue. On the other hand, the maximum moiré can be useful in displays. A proposed “2.5-D” display represents a new type of displays, the displays based on the moiré effect as on the main physical principle. As of today, binary black-and-white images are displayed, but this is not a principal limit and color imaging is also possible. A positive usage of the moiré effect to show images instead of its removal may be considered as an approach in displaying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a multiview three-dimensional (3-D) display system using a two-dimensional (2-D) flat panel display, it is very important to attach accurately an optical plate such as a parallax barrier and a lenticular lens sheet onto a 2-D display panel for the best quality of 3-D images. In most practical cases, however, misalignment occurs since it is too difficult to align perfectly in assembly process. In general, angular misalignment results in the deterioration of 3-D image quality by some increase of crosstalk, so that the resulting 3-D images are even distorted as tilted ones. To correct distorted 3-D images, we propose a method to skew 3-D objects before each image for multiviews is taken by multiple cameras. For this, a formula is derived to determine the amount of skewing 3-D objects. And by using it, some experimental results are shown that distorted 3-D images in a misaligned multiview 3-D display system are completely corrected. Since skewing 3-D objects implies a coordinate transformation of 3-D space, this method can be also used in the manipulation of 3-D image data obtained from a depth camera in order to correct the distorted 3-D images caused by angular misalignment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A geometric model of an autostereoscopic 3D display is described herein. This model is based on the geometry of typical display devices and on the projective transformations that provide periodicity in the projective space. The formulas for the transformations between regions and spaces are provided. The model can be applied to the study of an operation of the multiview, integral, plenoptic, and light-field displays. A practical application considered in this paper is the multiview wavelet transform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light‐field displays produce a 3D aerial image by synthesizing a plenoptic function. Due to their wide field‐of‐view these displays are excellent as tabletop displays for collaborative groups. By using characteristics of the plenoptic function to model unique aspects of group viewing, guidelines are created to address the spatial‐angular design trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the developed angular steering screen, super multi‐view three‐dimensional (3D) display is implemented. The mini projector array and the screen module with time multiplex angular steering screen are utilized to generate multiple high‐density viewpoints horizontally. The vivid high‐quality color 3D image with smooth parallax is realized in the developed 36‐view multi‐view 3D display experimental prototype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the fact that the abstract mathematical notions are often hard to grasp by students, without linking them to a specific physical representation or correlate them with regular facts, our team came up with the idea to create and implement a set of interactive teaching tool packages (ITTPs) to help them overcome such issues. The ITTPs consist of theoretical modules and applications in the framework of a Hungarian - Romanian cross-border project, developed with the aid of existing open source software and technologies. The focus of the Romanian team was on basic elements of linear algebra and analytic geometry, showcased using an auto-stereoscopic display for the purpose of image visualization. This paper presents an overview of similar technologies and the applications developed for representing pseudo-holographic images of geometric objects, namely vectors, straight lines, planes and conics. One of the developed packages was written using web technologies in order to make the applications available on mobile devices, as well as to eliminate the need to install any additional software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional (3D) visualization of preoperative and intraoperative medical information becomes more and more important in minimally invasive surgery. We develop a 3D interactive surgical visualization system using mobile spatial information acquisition and autostereoscopic display for surgeons to observe surgical target intuitively. The spatial information of regions of interest (ROIs) is captured by the mobile device and transferred to a server for further image processing. Triangular patches of intraoperative data with texture are calculated with a dimension-reduced triangulation algorithm and a projection-weighted mapping algorithm. A point cloud selection-based warm-start iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm is also developed for fusion of the reconstructed 3D intraoperative image and the preoperative image. The fusion images are rendered for 3D autostereoscopic display using integral videography (IV) technology. Moreover, 3D visualization of medical image corresponding to observer's viewing direction is updated automatically using mutual information registration method. Experimental results show that the spatial position error between the IV-based 3D autostereoscopic fusion image and the actual object was 0.38±0.92mm (n=5). The system can be utilized in telemedicine, operating education, surgical planning, navigation, etc. to acquire spatial information conveniently and display surgical information intuitively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nearly all 3D displays need calibration for correct rendering. More often than not, the optical elements in a 3D display are misaligned from the designed parameter setting. As a result, 3D magic does not perform well as intended. The observed images tend to get distorted. In this paper, we propose a novel display calibration method to fix the situation. In our method, a pattern image is displayed on the panel and a camera takes its pictures twice at different positions. Then, based on a quantitative model, we extract all display parameters (i.e., pitch, slanted angle, gap or thickness, and offset) from the observed patterns in the captured images. For high accuracy and robustness, our method analyzes the patterns mostly in the frequency domain. We conduct two types of experiments for validation; one with optical simulation for quantitative results and the other with real-life displays for qualitative assessment. Experimental results demonstrate that our method is quite accurate, about a half order of magnitude higher than prior work; is efficient, spending less than 2s for computation; and is robust to noise, working well in the SNR regime as low as 6dB. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Autostereoscopic displays are likely to become widely used products in the future. However, certain physiological factors, especially visual comfort, limit their development. In this study, four observational parameters - ambient illuminance, image content, scaling ratio, and horizontal distance between major and minor objects - were evaluated to determine the degree of visual comfort offered by 3D computer-generated images on an autostereoscopic display. Visual comfort score with the range of 0-1 is designed to represent the degree of visual comfort for the 3D images with different manipulations of ambient illuminance, image content, scaling ratio, and horizontal distance between major and minor objects in this study. Subjects were asked to indicate images that produced discomfort. The proportion of images for each condition where participants indicated that viewing the image was comfortable was computed. Images receiving a proportion of 0.5 or greater were classified as acceptable. The disparity ranges over which acceptable images were attained for each participant and for each condition were analyzed with analysis of variance. The analytical results indicate that ambient illuminance and image content have a significant effect on the acceptable disparity range, while scaling ratio and horizontal distance between major and minor objects did not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autostereoscopic 3D-LED displays using parallax barriers have several advantages. However, conventional designs do not consider the black stripes of regular LED panels. These cause immeasurable crosstalk owing to excess light from adjacent sub-pixels separated by the panels. To reduce the crosstalk in large-scale displays, we design a barrier in which the black-stripe occupation ratio is defined to quantify the crosstalk level in the LED system. A prototype is assembled and analyzed based on a three-in-one pixel LED-chip panel for a dual-viewpoint display. The improved parallax barrier meets the design requirements and achieves a low crosstalk level. Simulation and experiment results verify the effectiveness of the crosstalk-reduced design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonideal stereo videos do not hinder viewing experience in stereoscopic displays. However, for autostereoscopic displays nonideal stereo videos are the main cause of reduced three-dimensional quality causing calibration artifacts and multiview synthesis artifacts. We propose an efficient multiview rendering algorithm for autostereoscopic displays that takes uncalibrated stereo as input. First, the epipolar geometry of multiple viewpoints is analyzed for multiview displays. The uncalibrated camera poses for multiview display viewpoints are then estimated by algebraic approximation. The multiview images of the approximated uncalibrated camera poses do not contain any projection or warping distortion. Finally, by the exploiting rectification homographies and disparities of rectified stereo, one can determine the multiview images with their estimated camera poses. The experimental results show that the multiview synthesis algorithm can provide results that are both temporally consistent and well-calibrated without warping distortion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multi-view content generation method for three-dimensional (3D) display without depth-reversed area is demonstrated. The viewing zone periodicity of an autostereoscopic display is utilized to eliminate the depth-reversal by adjusting the light field alignment in the 3D light field. The conditions that a multi-view sequence should satisfies to form a depth-reversal-free sequence are given and detailed processes for converting the multi-view sequence into a depth-reversal-free sequence are presented. Experimental results show that the depth-reversed area is well eliminated, and the smooth motion parallax can be achieved when the viewer moves in front of the display within a 60°viewing angle. The number of presented perspectives can be 8 times more than the viewpoint number of the autostereoscopic display with the help of viewing zones integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose an automated calibration system for an eye-tracked autostereoscopic display (ETAD). Instead of calibrating each device sequentially and individually, our method calibrates all parameters of the devices at the same time in a fixed environment. To achieve this, we first identify and classify all parameters by establishing a physical model of the ETAD and describe a rendering method based on a viewer’s eye position. Then, we propose a calibration method that estimates all parameters at the same time using two images. To automate the proposed method, we use a calibration module of our own design. Consequently, the calibration process is performed by analyzing two images captured by onboard camera of the ETAD and the external camera of the calibration module. For validation, we conducted two types of experiments, one with simulation for quantitative evaluation, and the other with a real prototype ETAD device for qualitative assessment. Experimental results demonstrate the crosstalk of the ETAD was improved to 8.32%. The visual quality was also improved to 30.44% in the peak-signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and 40.14% in the structural similarity (SSIM) indexes when the proposed calibration method is applied. The whole calibration process was carried out within 1.5 s without any external manipulation.

A directional backlight autostereoscopy is characterized with well-collimated illumination directionality but generating a homogeneous distribution over the entire display screen over large viewing volume presents significant technical challenge. By taking advantage of the freedom to optimize the backlight, imaging optics and display panel, the adoption of plenoptic function is proposed and applied to the directionally illuminated autostereoscopy to provide viewers to perceive high-quality glass-free three-dimensional display at various viewing locations. With the programmable light-emitting diode arrays and liquid crystal display panel in conjunction with composite Fresnel lens array, an ideal autostereoscopic display is demonstrated. Assisted by retina-tracking and plenoptic function harnessing, high-quality autostereoscopy can be perceived within a large viewing volume with a conventional directional backlight autostereoscopic system but without using extra hardware component. • The adoption of plenoptic function is proposed and firstly applied to the directionally illuminated autostereoscopy. • Plenoptic function can provide a practical guidance to the design and optimization for general 3D displays. • The luminance homogeneity of DBAD is significantly improved without using any additional structure components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present an autostereoscopic display system with wide-dynamic-range view zone, high brightness and switchable 2D/3D. For this purpose, we propose a novel directional backlight system inspired by an optical splitter. Combined with eye tracking technique and LED-lit matrix, we expand the viewing zone and achieve 2D/3D switchable properties. And the design of direct illumination-type LED backlight improves the brightness significantly. The mathematical analysis and logic principle of the system is provided in this paper. And also, we build an autostereoscopic display prototype by the directional backlight system, and demonstrate experimentally that our system gives the viewer freedom both of viewing position and viewing environment with images of high quality. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Rapid developments in 3D display technologies have enabled consumers to enjoy 3D environments in an increasingly immersive manner through various display systems such as stereoscopic, multiview, and light field displays. However, there is a corresponding increase in the complexity of the conventional multiview rendering process in the attempt to achieve a sufficient level of reality, which may hinder the further commercial viability of 3D display products based on such a conventional approach. This paper proposes a novel method, the so-called direct light field rendering, which can compose the display 3D panel image without reconstructing all the multiview images beforehand. Interpreting the 3D display as sampling in the light field domain, we attempt to directly compute only the necessary samples, not the entire light fields or multiview images. Our proposed algorithm involves the solving of linear systems of two variables, thereby requiring remarkably low computational complexities. Experimental results show that the computation time and memory usage remain as little as 12% and 1% of those required by the conventional one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]