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Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an additive manufacturing process based on gas metal arc welding. It allows the fabrication of large-volume metal components by the controlled deposition and stacking of weld beads. Next to the near-net-shape manufacturing of metal components, WAAM is also applied in the local reinforcement of structural parts, such as shell geometries. However, this procedure can lead to undesired thermally induced distortions. In this work, the distortion caused by the WAAM reinforcement of half-cylinder shell geometries was investigated through experiments and transient thermo-mechanical finite element simulations. In the experiments, the weld beads were applied to the specimen, while its thermal history was measured using thermocouples. The developing distortions were registered using displacement transducers. The experimental data were used to calibrate and validate the simulation. Using the validated model, the temperature field and the distortions of the specimens could be predicted. Subsequently, the simulation was used to assess different deposition patterns and shell thicknesses with regard to the resulting part distortions. The investigations revealed a non-linear relation between shell thickness and distortion. Moreover, the orientation and the sequence of the weld beads had a significant impact on the formation of distortion. However, those effects diminished with an increasing shell thickness.

Coaxial laser metal deposition with wire (LMD-w) is an innovative additive manufacturing technology in which a wire is coaxially fed through the center of a hollow laser beam into a laser-induced melt pool. This special configuration results in a direction-independent process, which facilitates the manufacturing of thin-walled metal components at high deposition rates. However, laborious experimental test series must be conducted to adjust the process parameters so that the substrate and the part do not overheat. Therefore, models are needed to predict the resulting temperature field and melt pool dimensions efficiently. This paper proposes a finite element simulation model using an innovative heat source, which considers the unique intensity distribution of the annular laser spot. The heat source parameters were calibrated experimentally based on fusion lines obtained from metallographic cross sections of aluminum alloy samples (AA5078 wire and AA6082 substrate). Subsequently, the temperature distribution in the substrate plate was measured by means of thermocouples to validate the developed model. It was shown that the proposed heat source replicates the heat input accurately. With the presented model, essential features for process development, such as the temperature field and the melt pool dimensions, can be reliably predicted. The model contributes to a better understanding of the LMD-w process and facilitates an efficient process development in future research work as well as for industrial applications. Key words: thermal simulation, annular laser spot, heat source, laser metal deposition, coaxial wire feeding, directed energy deposition

Laser metal deposition (LMD) is an additive manufacturing process in which a metal powder or wire is added to a laser-induced molten pool. This localized deposition of material is used for the manufacturing, modification, and repair of a wide range of metal components. The use of wire as feedstock offers various advantages over the use of powder in terms of the contamination of the process environment, the material utilization rate, the ease of handling, and the material price. However, to achieve a stable process as well as defined geometrical and microstructural properties over many layers, precise knowledge on the effects of the input variables of the process on the resulting deposition characteristics is required. In this work, the melt pool temperature was used as an input parameter in LMD with coaxial wire feeding of stainless steel, which was made possible through the use of a dedicated closed-loop control system based on pyrometry. Initially, a temperature range was determined for different process conditions in which a stable deposition was obtained. Within this range, the cause-effect relationships between the melt pool temperature and the resulting geometry as well as the material properties were investigated for individual weld beads. It was found that the melt pool temperature is positively correlated with the width of the weld bead as well as the dilution. In addition, a dependence of the microhardness distribution over the cross section of a weld bead on the melt pool temperature was demonstrated, with an increased temperature negatively affecting the hardness.

Coaxial Laser Metal Deposition with wire (LMD-w) is a valuable complement to the already established Additive Manufacturing processes in production because it allows a direction-independent process with high deposition rates and high deposition accuracy. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the adjustment of the process parameters during process development to build defect-free parts. Therefore, in this work, a process development for coaxial LMD-w was conducted using an aluminum wire AlMg4,5MnZr and a stainless steel wire AISI 316L. At first, the boundaries for parameter combinations that led to a defect-free process were identified. The proportion between the process parameters energy per unit length and speed ratio proved crucial for a defect-free process. Then, the influence of the process parameters on the height and width of single beads for both materials was analyzed using a regression analysis. It was shown that linear models are suitable for describing the correlation between the process parameters and the dimensions of the beads. Lastly, a material-independent formula is presented to calculate the height increment per layer needed for an additive process. For future studies, the results of this work will be an aid for process development with different materials.

Welding of sheet metal structures in the automotive industry involves inflexible and expensive clamping devices to properly position and fasten the parts. The approach of feature-based fixturing can reduce fixtures in the joining process. It is based on part-inherent fastening features that realize the fixture functions. The proper design of these features requires knowledge of forces that result from the joining process and thus need to be compensated. For this paper, process forces were investigated during remote laser beam welding. This was achieved by using a thermomechanical simulation model. The aspects described in this paper are model build-up and validation, application of the approach to a real structure, and affiliated parameter studies. The studies show that required clamping forces depend, among other things, on the clamping condition and on the weld strategy. Finally, the simulation model allows for the design of fastening features to reduce joining fixtures in the automotive body shop.Welding of sheet metal structures in the automotive industry involves inflexible and expensive clamping devices to properly position and fasten the parts. The approach of feature-based fixturing can reduce fixtures in the joining process. It is based on part-inherent fastening features that realize the fixture functions. The proper design of these features requires knowledge of forces that result from the joining process and thus need to be compensated. For this paper, process forces were investigated during remote laser beam welding. This was achieved by using a thermomechanical simulation model. The aspects described in this paper are model build-up and validation, application of the approach to a real structure, and affiliated parameter studies. The studies show that required clamping forces depend, among other things, on the clamping condition and on the weld strategy. Finally, the simulation model allo...

The aim of the present study was the environmental and health risk assessment of the oil contaminated soil in the Mexican tropic. The case is based on the total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and polycyclic aromatic (PAH) soil contamination resulting from the activities of the oil industry over 70 years. The results of this study were estimated using CalTOX, a multimedia exposure model. The aromatic fraction constituted by PAH of two, three, four and five rings presented concentrations from 0.005 to 3.84 mg/kg. The BaP was the chemical of major concern due to its high carcinogen potential. The health risk assessment with CalTOX showed that risk mainly came from two exposure pathways: dermal uptake and ingestion. Only one zone was classified in the high risk level and rest of the zones did not exceed the acceptable health risk value (>10-E6) without requiring remediation actions. The environmental compartment that required main attention was the surface soil. [Received: September 22, 2009; Accepted: December 8, 2009]