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The CPP-like plant‐specific transcription factor has a prominent role in plant development and growth through cell division and differential activities. However, little information is available about the CPP gene family in Triticum aestivum L. Herein, we identified 37 and 11 CPP genes in the wheat and rice genome databases, respectively. The phylogeny of the CPP protein-like family members was further divided into five subfamilies based on structural similarities and phenotypic functional diversities. The in silico expression analysis showed that CPP genes are highly expressed in some tissues, such as shoot apex, shoot, leaf, leaf sheath, and microspore. Furthermore, the qRT-PCR found higher expression for TaCPP gene family members in leaf, leaf blade, young spike, mature spike, and differential expression patterns under abiotic stresses, including heat, drought, salt, and hormonal treatment, such as indole acetic acid and 1-aminocyclopropane-1 carboxylic acid. We found that CPP gene family members are mostly located in the nucleus after infiltrating the CPP5-1B-GFP and TaCPP11-3B-GFP into tobacco leaves. The overexpression of the TaCPP5-1D gene revealed that the CPP gene positively regulates the germanium, shoot, and root activities in Arabidopsis. The TaCPP5-1D-overexpressed plants showed less anti-oxidative sensitivity under drought stress conditions. These results demonstrated that TaCPP5-1D protein has a crucial contribution by interacting with TaCPP11-3B protein in maintaining stress homeostasis under the natural and unfavorable environmental conditions for growth, development, and stress resistance activities. Therefore, this study could be used as pioneer knowledge to further investigate the function of CPP genes in plant growth and development.

Climate change is a major cause of the world's food security problems, and soil salinity is a severe hazard for a variety of crops. The exploitation of endophytic fungi that are known to have a positive association with plant roots is preferred for improving plant growth, yield, and overall performance under salt stress. The current study thus rationalized to address how salt stress affected the growth, biochemical properties, antioxidant capacity, endogenous indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and the ionic status of maize associated with endophytic fungus (Stemphylium lycopersici). According to the findings, salt stress reduced chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll, total protein, sugars, lipids, and endogenous IAA levels. Enhanced values of chlorophyll a/b ratio, carotenoids, secondary metabolites (phenol, flavonoids, and tannins), antioxidant enzyme activity (catalase, ascorbate peroxidase), proline, and lipid peroxidation were noticed in maize plants under salt stress. Increased ionic content of Na+, Cl−, Na+/K+, and Na+/Ca2+ ratio, as well as decreased Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, N, and P contents, were also found in salt-stressed maize plants. In comparison to the non-saline medium, endophytic association promoted the antioxidant enzyme activities (798.7 U/g protein; catalase activity, 106 U/g protein; ascorbate peroxidase activity), IAA content (3.47 mg/g FW), and phenolics and flavonoids (88 and 1.68 μg/g FW, respectively), and decreased MDA content (0.016 nmol/g FW), Na+ ion content (18 mg/g dry weight), Cl− ion (16.6 mg/g dry weight), and Na+/K+ (0.78) and Na+/Ca2+ (1.79) ratios, in maize plants under salt stress, whereas Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, N, and P contents were increased in maize plants associated with S. lycopersici under salt stress. Current research exposed the role of S. lycopersici as an effective natural salt stress reducer and maize growth promoter; hence, it can be used as a biofertilizer to ameliorate salt stress tolerance in crops along with better growth performance in saline regions.

Infectious agents cause serious diseases in humans worldwide and are responsible for the high rate of morbidity and mortality. The prevalence and epidemiology of infectious disease (HCV) in the hospital visited patients referred by the physicians through the initial findings and their associated risk factors were studied in Swat. The data of 174 infected patients were collected during the period of 2015 to 2017 from two clinical laboratories of Tehsil Matta Swat. Inform consent form was taken before blood collection. After taking informed consent blood samples were collected and ICT test was performed and then ICT positive cases were conform through PCR. A total of 174 ICT positive samples [106 male and 68 females] were included in this study. Age was considered from 10 to 72 years. Of the 174 ICT strip positive, 99 [63 males, 36 females] were confirmed through PCR. The prevalence rate was recorded 56.89%. I.V/I.M injection was recorded in 100% of the individuals. Visits to the barber shop was reported in (58%) of the individuals, married individuals were (81.0), surgical operation was reported in (44.8%), sharing toothbrush was observed in (29.9%), piercing was reported in (39.7%), family history was reported in (26.4%), dental treatment was observed in (21.8%), jaundice were (13.2%) and tattooing was (1.7%). Blood transfusion, surgical operations, Jaundice, family history and dental treatment were found significant risk factors for acquiring HCV infection. It was concluded that proper implementation of precautionary measures should be needed to control the spread of HCV in far near future. RESUMO Agentes infecciosos causam doenças graves em humanos em todo o mundo, e são responsáveis pelo alto índice de morbimortalidade. A prevalência e a epidemiologia das doenças infecciosas no hospital que atendeu pacientes encaminhados pelos médicos por meio dos achados iniciais e seus fatores de risco associados foram estudadas em Peshawar. Os dados de 174 pacientes infectados foram coletados durante o período de 2015 a 2017 oriundos de dois laboratórios clínicos de Tehsil Matta Swat. O formulário de consentimento informado foi obtido antes da coleta de sangue. Após a obtenção do consentimento informado, foram coletadas amostras de sangue e foi realizado o teste ICT e, em seguida, os casos ICT positivos foram confirmados por PCR. Um total de 174 amostras ICT positivas [106 homens e 68 mulheres] foi incluído neste estudo. A idade considerada foi de 10 a 72 anos. Das 174 tiras de ICT positivas, 99 casos [63 homens, 36 mulheres] foram confirmados por PCR. A taxa de prevalência foi de 56,89%. A injeção IV / IM foi registrada em 100% dos indivíduos. A visita à barbearia foi relatada em (58%) dos indivíduos, os números de casados foram (81,0%), e a operação cirúrgica foi relatada em (44,8%), o compartilhamento de escova de dente foi observado em (29,9%), o piercing foi relatado em (39,7%), antecedentes familiares foram relatados em (26,4%), tratamento odontológico em (21,8%), icterícia (13,2%) e tatuagem em (1,7%). Transfusão de sangue, operações cirúrgicas, icterícia, histórico familiar e tratamento odontológico foram fatores de risco significativos para adquirir infecção por Vírus da Hepatite C (VHC). Concluiu-se que a implementação adequada de medidas de precaução deve ser necessária para controlar a propagação do VHC em um futuro próximo.

Molecular phylogenetics in general, particularly DNA barcoding, has revolutionized the systematic botany for exact identification of the species with respect to its possible affinities. Pakistan being blessed with a wide range of rare and endemic plants is devoid of critical data on its native flora mostly threatened to the verge of extinction. This paper explores the applicability of DNA barcodes, viz. rbcLa, matK and nrITs for the reconstruction of the phylogeny of Haplophyllum gilesii (Hemsel.) C. C. Townsend, a critically endangered, narrow endemic medicinal plant in Pakistan. The DNA sequences after retrieving from NCBI, for maximum likelihood, near neighbor joining and maximum parsimony, close match and best close match analyses, were performed using MUSCLE, BioEdit, MEGA-7 and TAXONDNA softwares and revealed that the universal plastid barcodes, rbcLa and nrlTs carrying 593 bp and 458 bp, respectively, are effective candidates for precise molecular description of this species, while matK remained as a challenge in this regard. BlastN algorithm successfully matched giving 99% and 96% identity with the reference datasets. The results further confirmed 75% best and best close match for rbcLa 12% while 0.0% for nrITs. Our findings are the first of its nature for Pakistan, which provides a sound foundation for molecular biosystematics of the threatened flora of the region.

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Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of death all over the world. Beside general risk factors, there are some genetic factors which lead to cardiovascular diseases. Various nuclear DNA mutation and also mitochondrial DNA mutations have been related with cardiovascular diseases. In the present study, a total of 21 samples were collected from different families residing in district Dir. DNA was extracted from buccal epithelial cells using saliva. The mitochondrial tRNA leu (MT TL1) gene was amplified by PCR and 10 samples of different families were sequenced. The sequence was aligned with revised Cambridge Reference Sequence (rCRS) accession # NC-012920.1. It is concluded that cardiovascular diseases in our subjects are not due to mutation in the mitochondrial leucine tRNA gene. However, a large population of subjects with cardiovascular diseases needs to be studied and whole mitochondrial DNA is needed to be sequenced in the subjects with CVD. This will give an idea about the probable DNA marker which can be used to prevent loses due to these diseases at a very early stages.

"Throughout the history humanity has witnessed many ups and downs. There might have been many eras of moral lawlessness in which humanity might have suffered from lack of moral character, civilization, lack of social norms and values and many such things. But in the present era social media has emerged as a very sharp sword which has destroyed social values, norms and morality. It has proven destructive to a unprecedented level. Sometimes people share news about a person without conformation and on other times people destroy human shapes and give them resemblance with animal shapes and then share them on social media by way of comparison between human and animals. Insulting political opponents, playing with honor and dignity of others, humiliating others have become a game to play for people on social media. Many users of the social media think that there is no respect for others at all so they don’t hesitate from humiliating people. For them the only act worth doing is to protect the so called respect of the leader they follow and love. They are ready to cross any limit for this. While doing all this they forget anything and everything about civility, morality, and social values etc. someone has quite rightly said that good character is proof of good blood. While using social media one is in fact representing one’s family and blood. According to statistics 58% of the whole population of our country consists of young people the majority of which is so much attached and engrossed with the use of social media that they are oblivious of what is going around them. The spell of social media has bound people in the galleries of hospitals, pathways, passengers, and in educational institutes. So much so that even in homes, social media has preoccupied people to an extent that they damn care for the people living in the same home with them. There is value for a friend on social media but there is no value for a person sitting very next to them. A young man is busy and engaged with a so called sister on social media but his real sister is seen tantalized for his care and affection. In the university students miss out lectures of teacher but want to learn things from google and social media. This is the dilemma of the current age. The use of social media has taken people far away from the people sitting and living very close to them. Now the young generation has options i.e. positive or negative use of social media. Your face book account, your profile is reflective of your personality. Any visitor, while visiting your profile and account will have your whole personality open up to him. Difference of opinion is permitted and appreciable thing but it should be done within limits. The current research paper is an attempt to cover up all these things and to see the Islamic teachings about the use of social media. How to open an account on social media, how to share pictures on it either self or that of others, sending friend requests and accepting them? These and other related issues will be discussed in the present paper in the light of Islam."

Offshore software development outsourcing (OSDO) is a modern business strategy for producing high-quality software at a low cost. The OSDO refers to the practice of contracting to an offshore (extrinsic) organization to perform some or all software development work of a product. For the benefit of the OSDO vendors, this paper aims to develop a “communication and coordination challenges mitigation model” (CCCMM) that provides solutions for unambiguously defined communication and coordination processes in global software development (GSD) environment. Our proposed model is based on the fuzzy multi-attribute decision-making (FMADM) approach incorporating the capability of group decision-making. The FMADM approach is used both in the ranking of survey and assessment of case studies. First, the authors undertook a systematic literature review (SLR) that identified all cited challenges from a set of 101 articles. We identified 18 problem areas faced by the GSD vendors in OSDO relationships. Of these, six were ranked as critical. For the purpose of identifying corrective interventions, a second SLR was conducted that revealed 75 remedial measures extracted from 63 chosen articles. To validate our SLR findings, we surveyed 42 outsourcing experts from six countries. We also categorized six critical challenges and 75 corrective practices into four mitigation levels based on CMMI, SOVRM, and SOPM. In addition, two case studies were conducted to evaluate CCCMM outcomes in OSDO companies. The assessment results of the first case study do not recommend Company-A for the successful implementation of level-2 of the CCCMM, so Company-A stands at level-1. We have observed from the second case study that Company-B has implemented all the critical challenges of the level-2 only; therefore, Company-B is at level-2 “success” of the proposed assessment model.

Computer games have become one of the most interesting and dynamic research areas of artificial intelligence as computer games are the best testbeds to evaluate and test the theoretical ideas in artificial intelligence before applying them in real-world. The enhancement in computing power, advancement in machine learning particularly deep reinforcement learning, and the evolution of neural networks are allowing the autonomous game agents to perform substantially well that often leave behind human beings by using only the screen raw pixels for making their actions or decisions. In this chapter, we use Deep reinforcement learning in the form of Deep Q-learning under its two variants Deep Q-Network (DQN) and Deep Recurrent Q-Learning Network (DRQN) to control agents in playing the two famous computer games i.e. Doom and Minecraft. We present how to build an implementation of a testbed for such state-of-the-art methods using the ViZDoom, Gym-Minecraft and Microsoft's Malmo platforms. Initially, we present our results on a simplified game scenario(s) from Doom in predicting the enemy positions (game features) with the difference in the performance of the DQN and DRQN in both fully observable Markovian decision process (FOMDP) and partially observable Markovian decision process (POMDP) and claim that the DQN performs better at predicting the enemy positions. Finally, we present results on another game scenario(s) from Minecraft to test and confirm the performance of DRQN in POMDP where unlike other existing works, our proposed architectures outperform the built-in AI agents and human players in predicting the game features with enhanced accuracy.

Cloud Computing entails accessing and storing programs and data over the internet instead of the hard drive of a personal computer. Over the Internet, it is the practice of software and hardware to pass a service. Cloud gives the ability to consumers to access big data and use applications from every device that can have access to the internet, however, the key problem is security and this can be solvable by a firewall and Virtual Private Network. Recently, research has been accomplished in deploying firewalls and Virtual Private Networks with parameters of throughput and load in sparse mode. In this paper, an examination of firewall and Virtual Private Network is considered based on average throughput, average packet loss and average end-to-end delay in dense mode. To examine the performance of cloud computing without Firewall and Virtual Private Network, with firewall only, and with firewall and Virtual Private Network is the research goal. The simulation results have shown that Firewall and Virtual Private Network offers better security through a wide investigation with slight distress in the cloud performance.

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are the preferable choice for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) because of its prevailing significance in both safety and nonsafety applications. Information dissemination in a multihop fashion along with privacy preservation of source node is a serious but challenging issue. We have used the idea of the phantom node as the next forwarder for data dissemination. The phantom node (vehicle) hides the identity of actual source node thus preserving the location privacy. The selection of the phantom node among the set of alternatives’ candidate vehicles is considered as a multicriteria-based problem. The phantom node selection problem is solved by using an analytical network process (ANP) by considering different traffic scenarios. The selection is based on different parameters which are distance, speed, trust, acceleration, and direction. The best alternative (target phantom vehicle) is selected through an ANP where all the alternatives are ranked from best to worst. The vehicle having maximum weight is considered to be the best choice as a phantom node. In order to check the stability of the alternatives’ ranking, sensitivity analysis is performed by taking into account different traffic scenarios and interest level of candidate vehicles.

Delay tolerant networks (DTNs) are a special type of intermittently connected networks (ICN) featured by variable delay, frequent disruption, asymmetric data rates, and high-error rates. The DTNs have been primarily developed for interplanetary networks (IPNs), however, it shows applicability to challenged networks. Thus, solutions devised for security and routing for traditional networks do not apply to DTNs due to its unique nature. Moreover, this paper shows less attention particularly in security and its related strings. In DTNs, malicious nodes launch various attacks that include packet drop, a fake packet, and flood attack. These attacks inevitably overuse scarce resources (bandwidth, buffer, and energy) in DTNs, which leads to low packet delivery ratio and high packet loss ratio. Flood attack is listed in top among the challenging attacks in DTNs. The existing techniques to confront flood attack suffered from high-detection time and low-detection accuracy. This paper proposed novel resources efficient (distributed and intrusion detection system-based) algorithms to mitigate flood attack. The simulation results show considerable improvement in detection time, detection accuracy, and resource consumption, and also show enhanced packet delivery ratio and reduced packet loss ratio.

To minimize the communication overhead with the help of optimal path selection in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) routing protocols is the challenging issue. Hierarchical routing optimizes energy utilization by distributing the workload among different clusters. But many-to-one multi-hop hierarchical routing will result in the excessive expenditure of energy near the sink and leads to early energy exhaustion of the nodes. Due to this the routing hole problem can be caused around the base station. Data routed along the hole boundary nodes will lead to premature exhaustion of energy. This will maximize the size of the hole in the network. Detection of holes saves the additional energy consumption around the hole and minimize the hole size. In this paper a novel energy efficient routing hole detection (EEHD) algorithm is presented, on the detection of routing hole, the periodic re-clustering is performed to avoid the long detour path. Extensive simulations are done in MATLAB, the results reveal that EEHD has better performance than other conventional routing hole detection techniques, such as BCP and BDCIS.

Diabetes mellitus is either caused by the disturbance in the β-cells producing insulin or the body cells fails responding insulin. Both the genetic and environmental factors enhance the risk of diabetes. Variations in mitochondrial genes have an established link with diabetes mellitus. We have evaluated MT-TL2 gene in unrelated families and found three variations in our studied diabetic patients. The DNA sequences coding for MT-TL2 gene were sequenced and mutations were detected in all participants. The mutations were further analyzed by the in-silico analysis and their structural and pathogenic effects were determined. The investigated patients had symptoms of kidney, hearing, joint problems, muscles pain and also had cousin marriages in their family history. DNA extracted from saliva was used for the PCR amplification of a 440 bp DNA fragment encompassing complete MT-TL2 gene. The nucleotide sequence analysis revealed three mutations, m.12308A>G, m.12316G>A, and m.12335T>A that are divergent from available reports. The identified mutations were in heteroplasmic condition. Furthermore, pathogenicity of the identified variants was predicted by in-silico tools viz., PON-mt-tRNA and MitoTIP. Secondary structure of altered MT-TL2 was predicted by RNAStructure web server. Studies by MitoTIP and PON-mt-tRNA tools have provided strong evidences of pathogenic effects of these mutations. Single nucleotide variations resulted in disruptive secondary structure of mutant MT-TL2 models, as predicted by RNAStructure. In vivo confirmation of structural and pathogenic effects of identified mutations in the animal models can be prolonged on the basis of these findings. Funding Statement: Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. Declaration of Interests: All authors declare that they have no potential conflict of interest. Ethics Approval Statement: The study and its procedures were approved by the Institutional Ethical Committee and the Board of Advanced Studies and Research of Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. Informed consent was signed by the patients.

Artificial Intelligence in the form of machine learning is employed in games to control non-human computer-players, agents or bots. However, most of these games such as Atari took place in 2D environments that were not fully observable to the agents. Currently, it is of extreme significance to employ such machine learning techniques and methods in 3D environments such as Doom. Therefore, In this paper, we train agents on the health gathering scenario of the classical first-person shooter game Doom by first presenting the Direct Future Prediction to train an agent that uses a simple architecture with no additional supervisory signals, then differentiate and compare the performance of the agents trained by using several different machine learning techniques, and the AI reinforcement learning platform ‘VizDoom’, a 3D partially observable environment, with interesting enhanced properties that makes agents to stand out from inbuilt AI agents and human players. We have continued to use computer games as a benchmark for the performance of AI as having been so successful in the past. We also compared the results of our findings to conclude the performance of the agents trained with different machine learning techniques. The agents performed well against both human players and inbuilt game agents.

An efficient procedure was developed for in vitro callus induction, proliferation and regeneration of carnation cultivar (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) using leaf, nodal and inter-nodal explants on Murashige and Skoog’s medium (MS) supplemented with exogenous plant growth regulators. For morphogenic callus induction and proliferation from various explants, MS medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/l 2,4-D was highly efficient with 100% callus induction frequency from inter-nodal explants. Leaf explants showed quicker response than nodal and inter-modal explants, for callus initiation within 6 days of inoculation. Best grown callus was obtained from leaf explant. The leaf-derived callus was maintained up to several weeks, which indicated that 8-week incubation period was the most suitable for obtaining well proliferated, morphogenic callus. Temperature variation also affected the growth of in vitro induced morphogenic callus from various explants. Results have shown that 27°C proved to be the best temperature for morphogenic callus induction and proliferation from leaf and inter-nodal explants. Among the auxin-cytokinin combination, MS medium containing 1.0 mg/l N(6)-benzylaminopurin (BAP) and 2.0 mg/l NAA showed the highest efficiency of callus initiation and proliferation from leaf, nodal and inter-nodal explants. Light conditions proved better for callogenesis and proliferation from leaf, nodal and inter-nodal explants. Regeneration response from well grown morphogenic callus was prominent on MS medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/l BAP alone and 1.0 mg/l NAA with 3.0 mg/l BAP.

Intelligent Transport System (ITS) uses the IEEE 802.11P standard for the wireless communication among vehicles. A wireless ad hoc network of vehicles is established to improve road safety, comfort, security, and traffic efficiency. Wireless communication in ITS leads to many security and privacy challenges. Security and privacy of ITS are important issues that demand incorporation of confidentiality, privacy, authentication, integrity, non-repudiation, and restrictive obscurity. In order to ensure the privacy of vehicles during communication, it is required that the real identity of vehicles should not be revealed. There must be robust and efficient security and privacy mechanisms for the establishment of a reliable and trustworthy network. Therefore, we propose Advanced Strong Pseudonym based Authentication (ASPA), which is a distributed framework to handle the security and privacy issues of vehicle communications in ITS. ASPA only allows vehicles with valid pseudonyms to communicate in ITS. Pseudonyms are assigned to vehicles in a secure manner. The pseudonym mappings of vehicles are stored at different locations to avoid any chance of vehicle pseudonyms certificates linkability. In addition, the most recent communication pseudonyms of a malicious vehicle are revoked and are stored in the Certificate Revocation List (CRL) that results in small size of the CRL. Therefore, the CRL size does not increase exponentially. The distributed framework of ASPA guarantees, the vehicles privacy preservation in the real identities mapping and revocation phase. The empirical results prove that ASPA is robust and efficient with low computational cost, overhead ratio, average latency, and an increased delivery ratio.

In Pakistan, roses are commercially valuable as ornamentals and for perfumes essential oils, rose syrup, and herbal tea. During 2015-2016, circular to oval black spots (2 to 3 mm in diameter) were observed on roses in the cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. A total of 35 symptomatic leaves were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite for 2 min and then rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. Excised segments (3 mm2) of surface sterilized tissue were transferred to potato dextrose agar (PDA) and incubated at 25 ± 2°C. After 5 days, white colonies developed from 25 samples and later turned black or golden brown. The conidia were borne singly or in short chains and were obpyriform to obclavate, 10-40 x 6.2-17.60 µm with 0 to 3 longitudinal and 2 to 6 transverse septa. The morphological characters matched those of Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissl (Simmons 2007). For confirmation of pathogenicity, three asymptomatic mature rose leaves were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite and the...

The fifth decennial population Census was held after 17 years and its data is now being processed. Originally the Census was scheduled to be held in March 1991. The exercise had been actually initiated that year from Sindh but was soon abandoned when two major ethnic groups in the province started accusing each other of resorting to false enumeration in order to achieve a fake majority in the province. Some of the prominent Punjabi politicians also objected that the head count figures in Sindh were being engineered in order to stake claims to more resources for the province at the expense of other federal units. The Census was postponed in view of the objections and it was announced that the exercise would be undertaken in October the same year. This time the Balochistan government announced that it would reject the Census results if thousands of Afghan refugees living in the province, many among whom had acquired fake Pakistani identity cards, were not first repatriated to their own country. As the federal government failed to do this, the Census had to be postponed without any new date being fixed.

Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA primers (RAPDs) were mapped on chromosomes 2A of wheat genotypes using “Chinese Spring” nullisomic-tetrasomic lines. One particular pair of chromosome was absent and another homologous pair was present in the extra dose. Genomic DNA was isolated from two genetic stocks viz; NT1D1B and NT2A2B. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were conducted using RAPD primers GLC-07 and GLB-11. PCR amplification using primer GLC-07 produced single band of approximately 1100 bp in both the genetic stocks, indicating that the primer was annealed to a loci other than chromosome 2A. RAPD primer GLB-11 amplified a polymorphic allele of approximately 500 bp which was present in NT1D1B but was absent in NT2A2B, indicating that the locus was present on chromosome 2A of common wheat. Hence, this marker (GLB-11) can reliably be used to keep track of chromosome 2A of wheat. Key words: Wheat, randomly amplified polymorphic DNA primer (RAPD), mapping, chromosomes, homologous, genomes.

Pashto, as a native language is spoken by about 28 million people in parts of Pakistan and over 13 million people in the south, east, west and a few Northern provinces of Afghanistan. Pashto allows clitics to be inserted into morphological words. The clitics with this property are called endoclitics.This paper presents an account of Pashto Endoclitics and the unique challenge posed by these clitics. Pashto endoclitics are interesting, because they cannot be completely accounted for by syntax or prosody alone, but transcend different levels of grammar framework. The problem of clitic generation has to deal with syntax, prosody, and discourse constraints.