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The island of São Miguel is among the most seismically active areas of the Azores archipelago. This work focuses on the most significant recent swarm, which occurred on February 2018. We set up an automated procedure to process continuous full seismic waveform data from local stations to generate high-quality earthquake information on the volcano unrest episode. First, we applied an automated detector software, next we located the detected events and then classified the earthquakes based on their waveform similarity, identifying three families of seismic events. We then extended the catalog by template matching. Finally, we computed moment tensors to investigate the source mechanisms of the largest earthquakes. Our results image the ∼2-week swarm evolution. The activity started with a precursory phase with low rate and low magnitude (ML < 2.0) seismicity and the activation of a deeper structure (∼10-15 km). After ∼1 week, a new earthquake family emerged at shallower depths (∼8–12 km) reaching magnitudes up to ML 3.4. Finally, a third slightly shallower family was activated. Moment tensors show mostly normal faulting mechanisms, striking ∼NW-SE, compatible with the orientation of the regional stress field. A surface deformation transient was recorded by geodetic stations, starting with the swarm, and continuing over the following ∼17 months, corresponding to either inflation or extension around the swarm region. The prolonged surface deformation implies a process that was initiated during the swarm and subsequently accommodated mostly aseismically. We interpret the seismicity observed at the early stage of deformation as indicating episodic fluid injection through the crust, related to the local hydrothermal or magmatic systems. We conclude that the Fogo-Congro region continues to be seismo-volcanically active, with both seismic and aseismic deformation observed and requiring close multidisciplinary monitoring. The proposed methology based on the automated analysis of continuous waveform data provides high-quality imaging of the spatio-temporal evolution of seismicity, which can be used elsewhere in the operational monitoring of seismo-volcanic crises to gain insight into the ongoing deformation processes, improve hazard assessment and help in the development of effective mitigation strategies.

Ground deformation in the Azores, at the triple junction between the Eurasian, Nubian, and North American plates, has been mapped with continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) geodetic measurements to improve tectonic motion estimates and for understanding volcanic unrest. We compute daily positions, spanning almost 17 years (2000–2017), from 18 continuous GPS stations. The GPS time‐series are analyzed by searching for discontinuities and periodic functions. Results show that Flores and Graciosa islands have displacements close to predicted North American and Eurasian plate motions, respectively, while São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Faial and Pico islands have displacements in between predicted Eurasian and Nubian plate motions. The Eurasian‐Nubian plate boundary in the Azores behaves as a diffuse ultra‐slow oblique spreading center with focused deformation found in the central group (CG) and São Miguel islands. The velocity field is modeled by approximating segments of the Eurasian‐Nubian plate boundary with vertical dislocations with right‐lateral motion and opening below a locking depth. Best fitting models have deep motion in the range of 2.0–2.3 mm yr−1 directed N (82.3–88.7)°E. Such displacement accounts for almost half of predicted Eurasian‐Nubian relative plate motion. The modeling results suggest that the locking depth in the CG islands is at least 20 km while in São Miguel it is about 2 km. We find transient deformation at Fogo volcano, São Miguel Island, due to unrest activity mainly during 2003–2006 and 2011–2012, and local continuous subsidence in Terceira Island, attributed to a deflation source centered on the island. Plain Language Summary: The Azores archipelago is located at the junction of three tectonic plates, the North American, Eurasian and Nubian plates. The boundary between the North American and the other two plates is well defined by the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge, but the boundary between the Eurasian and Nubian plates is unclear. Ground deformation in the Azores has been mapped with Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements between 2000 and 2017 to estimate tectonic motion and understand volcanic unrest. We calculate the velocity of 18 continuous GPS stations and compare it with predicted velocities from plate motion models. Results show that Flores and Graciosa islands move with velocities close to stable North American and Eurasian plate motions, respectively. In contrast, São Miguel, Terceira, São Jorge, Faial and Pico islands are subject to inter‐plate motion between the Eurasian and Nubian plates, with focused spreading in the central group (CG) and São Miguel islands. The velocity field can be explained by the motion of vertical rectangular dislocations in the CG and São Miguel islands buried at 20 and 2 km, respectively. The focused spreading in the central part of São Miguel Island helps explain the episodic intrusions at Fogo volcano during unrest episodes. Key Points: Ultra‐slow oblique spreading occurs at the EU‐NU boundary in the Azores with focused deformation found in the central group and São MiguelThe velocity field of the EU‐NU plate boundary is modeled with vertical sliding dislocations with deep motion of ∼2.6 mm/yr directed ENETransient deformation occurs at São Miguel due to episodic unrest at Fogo volcano and local continuous subsidence occurs in Terceira [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Santa Maria is the oldest island in the Azores, formerly belonging to the Eurasia plate and currently the only one sitting on the Nubia Plate, thus sharing a geodynamic evolution with the Azores Triple Junction. It is therefore important to evaluate the effects of active tectonics on the evolution of Santa Maria, for example on its vertical movements. We present new stratigraphic, geomorphologic, structural and geochronological data from Santa Maria which shed further light on how a volcanic ocean island evolves in a tectonically active setting. Santa Maria island started with a first shield volcano (Old Volcanic Complex) that emerged ca. 6.0 Ma ago and was active until ca. 5.3 Ma. The short time span between the first and second shield volcanoes (ca. 0.3 Ma) and the preservation of only the western flank of this first shield volcano indicate an initial flank collapse at ca. 5 Ma. The collapse scar was covered by an eastwards dipping sedimentary complex (Intermediate Sedimentary Complex), with a likely tsunami deposit at the base. A second shield volcano (Young Volcanic Complex) rapidly grew on these sediments from 4.8 to 3.8 Ma, and the island subsided by more than 100 m. At 3.7 Ma, a second flank collapse occurred, as inferred from the missing summit and eastern flank. Volcanism then resumed (3.6 to 2.8 Ma), giving rise to Strombolian cones lying unconformably on the collapse scar and conformable parasitic cones on the unaffected flank. Submarine lavas occurring at up to 200 m altitude with a youngest age of 3.0 Ma indicate major uplift of the island since, at most, that time. Here we interpret uplift as the result of rift flank uplift on the southern shoulder of the nearby Terceira Rift in the last ca. 1.5 Ma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The S. Jorge Island in the Azores lies on a peculiar setting, the southern shoulder of the Terceira Rift (TR), which raises a series of questions that we address in this study. We first established the main volcanic stratigraphy by recognizing, in the field, the main unconformities/discontinuities and their meaning (major erosion surfaces and faults), then we collected critical samples, and finally dated them by K/Ar to calibrate the stratigraphy and the age of inferred large-scale flank collapses. Based on field, geochronological and marine geophysical data: (1) we found much older rocks in S. Jorge than in previous studies (ca. 1.85 Ma), and established a new volcanic stratigraphy (from bottom to top): Old Volcanic Complex (ca. 1.9–1.2 Ma), cropping out in the eastern third of the island; Intermediate Volcanic Complex (ca. 0.8–0.2 Ma), cropping out in the western two thirds of the island and separated from the underlying complex by a major fault; Young Volcanic Complex (

The evolution of hyperslow oceanic rifts, like the Terceira Rift (TR) in the Azores, is still poorly understood. Here we examine the distribution of strain and magmatism in the portion of the TR making up the Nubia-Eurasia plate boundary. We use São Miguel Island because it stretches most of the TR width, which allows to investigate the TR's architecture and shedding light on TR's age and mode of deformation. From topography and structural analysis, and new measurements of 380 faults and dikes, we show that (1) São Miguel has two main structural directions, N150 and N110, mostly concentrated in the eastern part of the island as an onshore continuation of the faults observed offshore in the NE (N110 faults) and SW (N140) TR walls; (2) a new N50-N80 fault system is identified in São Miguel; (3) fault and dike geometries indicate that eastern São Miguel comprises the TR's northern boundary, and the lack of major faults in central and western São Miguel indicates that rifting is mostly concentrated at master faults bounding the TR. Based on TR's geometry, structural observations and plate kinematics, we estimate that the TR initiated between 1.4 and 2.7 Ma ago and that there is no appreciable seafloor spreading associated with rifting. Based on plate kinematics, on the new structural data, and on São Miguel's structural and volcanic trends, we propose that the eastern two thirds of São Miguel lie along a main TR-related transform fault striking N70-N80, which connects two widely separated N130-N150 TR-trending segments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Sibrant et al. (2014), we reconstructed the evolution of Graciosa Island (Azores). We extensively discussed the nature and the meaning of the destruction episodes, either tectonics or gravitational, and concluded that the island has evolved through major landslides. In their comment, Quartau et al. (2015) conclude that (1) “Sibrant et al. (2014) is based almost solely on subaerial observations,” which is false because we used the bathymetric data available to us (Figs. 3 and 4 in Sibrant et al., 2014). (2) “…the published multibeam sonar data around Graciosa reveals that their proposed successive phases of destruction of the volcanic edifices composing the island by massive landslides is incompatible with the high-resolution bathymetry.” First, saying that the data were published is misleading because only two images are now provided in Quartau et al. (2015). Most of the high-resolution data used by Quartau et al. (2015) are not published, and they still do not release the data for us to analyse and use in this reply. Second, the high-resolution bathymetric maps are not incompatible with our model. For instance, mounds on the eastern submarine slope may actually be landslide blocks, and the platform developed to the S may correspond to flank collapses of the successive volcanoes, blanketed more recently by the young basaltic cover. (3) “The interpretation of collapse structures appears to have originated partly from a misreading of the volcano-stratigraphy and tectonic structures”. We certainly did not “misread” the volcanic stratigraphy and tectonic structures in Graciosa; in great contrast to Quartau et al. (2015), we (a) used major unconformities to establish the volcano-stratigraphy, (b) calibrated this stratigraphy with high precision K–Ar dating, (c) made careful measurement of lava flow attitudes to infer the pre-collapse position of the main edifices, and (d) did not use hypothetical tectonic faults, as Quartau et al. (2015) did, to draw an evolutionary cartoon of Graciosa. The lava flows in the southern cliffs of Graciosa dip inland, as recognised by Gaspar (1996, Fig. 3B), in great contrast to the claims of Quartau et al. (2015), and therefore do not support successive volcanoes coinciding with the centre of the island. (4) From unreleased high-resolution bathymetric data, Quartau et al. (2015) consider that no large landslide(s) occurred in Graciosa, and propose a “new model.” First, their geological model is not new, as it reproduces a cartoon in Gaspar (1996, Fig. 3A). Second, Quartau et al. (2015) have not reported any major faults exposed at the surface, as expected for an island-scale graben, but their summary cartoon of Graciosa evolution is based on major faults. Third, the new model of Quartau et al. (their Fig. 8, and our Fig. 4) misrepresents the initial model of Gaspar (1996, Figs. 4.1 and 4.2), as the whole SW flank of the island has been arbitrarily removed on their drawing (see our Fig. 3). In contrast, Sibrant et al. (2014) propose that the SW flank has been effectively removed, but by landslides. Therefore, their new model for the evolution of Graciosa is based on misleading hypotheses rather than convincing arguments. In conclusion, there is no need to change our proposed new stratigraphy and evolution of the island based on Quartau et al.'s claims because these are not supported by actual geological data—well established and calibrated stratigraphy, geometry of lava flows, and geometry and kinematics of faults. Given the absence of sound geological data to support the evolutionary cartoon proposed by Quartau et al. (2015), we conclude that it is mostly flawed and therefore mere speculation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pico Island constitutes the easternmost sub-aerial domain of a steep WNW-ESE volcanic ridge, which has developed within the Nubia-Eurasia diffuse plate boundary (Azores Triple Junction). The island comprises three volcanic systems, from older to younger: the Topo Volcano, the Fissural System, and the Pico Stratovolcano. From a high-resolution Digital Elevation Model (10 m), and new bathymetric, stratigraphic, structural, and high-precision K-Ar data, we reconstruct the main successive stages of growth and partial destruction of the island over the last 200 kyr. We especially concentrate on the central sector of the island, which has recorded gradual movements through slumping and catastrophic flank collapses since ca. 130 kyr. The remmants of the Topo Volcano are partly exposed on Pico's SE flank, and are here dated between 186 ± 5 and 115 ± 4 ka. Topo was significantly destroyed by N- and S-directed large-scale flank collapses between ca. 125 and 70 ka. On Pico’s N flank, collapse seems to have removed all the unstable material, but in the S the collapse structure is composite, including a major flank collapse and a remnant slump complex that is still active. A first episode of deformation occurred between ca. 125 and 115 ka along the master fault of the slump. Between ca. 115 and 69 ka, most of the unstable material was removed by a major flank collapse, leaving behind a still considerable volume of unstable material that comprises the active slump. This first collapse was catastrophic and generated a large debris deposit recognized on the high-resolution bathymetry, with a minimum run-out of ca. 17 km. The scar was partially filled by volcanic products erupted from volcanic cones developed within the slump depression, and possibly also from the early WNW-ESE Fissural System. Subsequent deformation in the slump area affected in part the filling units, leading to the individualization of secondary curved faults. Younger volcanic products have gradually masked the mass-wasting scars. Unlike the well-known Hilina slump (Hawaii), Pico's slump evolution might be controlled by an active regional tectonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of volcanic islands is generally marked by fast construction phases alternating with destruction by a variety of mass-wasting processes. More specifically, volcanic islands located in areas of intense regional deformation can be particularly prone to gravitational destabilisation. The island of S. Miguel (Azores) has developed during the last 1 Myr inside the active Terceira Rift, a major tectonic structure materializing the present boundary between the Eurasian and Nubian lithospheric plates. In this work, we depict the evolution of the island, based on high-resolution DEM data, stratigraphic and structural analyses, high-precision K–Ar dating on separated mineral phases, and offshore data (bathymetry and seismic profiles). The new results indicate that: (1) the oldest volcanic complex (Nordeste), composing the easternmost part of the island, was dominantly active between ca. 850 and 750 ka, and was subsequently affected by a major south-directed flank collapse. (2) Between at least 500 ka and 250 ka, the landslide depression was massively filled by a thick lava succession erupted from volcanic cones and domes distributed along the main E-W collapse scar. (3) Since 250 kyr, the western part of this succession (Furnas area) was affected by multiple vertical collapses; associated plinian eruptions produced large pyroclastic deposits, here dated at ca. 60 ka and less than 25 ka. (4) During the same period, the eastern part of the landslide scar was enlarged by retrogressive erosion, producing the large Povoação valley, which was gradually filled by sediments and young volcanic products. (5) The Fogo volcano, in the middle of S. Miguel, is here dated between ca. 270 and 17 ka, and was affected by, at least, one southwards flank collapse. (6) The Sete Cidades volcano, in the western end of the island, is here dated between ca. 91 and 13 ka, and experienced mutliple caldera collapses; a landslide to the North is also suspected from the presence of a subtle morphologic scar covered by recent lava flows erupted from alignments of basaltic strombolian cones. The predominance of the N150° and N75° trends in the island suggest that the tectonics of the Terceira Rift controlled the location and the distribution of the volcanism, and to some extent the various destruction events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interpretation of high-resolution topography/bathymetry, GPS and InSAR data, and detailed structural geology indicate that: (1) Terceira developed at the intersection of two major volcano-tectonic lineaments: WNW-ESE (local TR's direction) and NNW-SSE (submarine chain of volcanoes, here firstly recognised and coined Terceira Seamount Chain). (2) Terceira is affected by four main fault systems: the ca. N165° (normal faults dipping to east and west, mostly across the middle of the island), the N140° (normal faults mostly making up the Lajes Graben), the N110° (faults with oblique striations – normal dextral, making up the main volcanic lineament), and the more subtle N70° (the transform direction related to the Nubia/Eurasia plate boundary). Seismicity, GPS data and faults displacing the topography indicate that all systems are active. (3) The whole island is subsiding at a rate of ca. 5 mm/yr, as attested by both GPS and InSAR data, which is exceptionally high for the Azores islands. Common explanations like thermal contraction, or bending of the lithosphere, or magmatic processes, or collapse of the island under its own weight likely cannot justify the observed subsidence rate. The estimated average of TR's subsidence rate is also not enough, therefore we conclude that the measured 5 mm/yr can be a peak. (4) The fault geometry and kinematics are consistent with the current direction of maximum extension in the Azores (ca. N65°), and the rotation of Nubia relative to Eurasia. (5) Given that the NE shoulder of the Lajes Graben is moving upwards at 5 mm/yr and sits directly on the TR's NE shoulder, we conclude that the TR's shoulder is moving up, most likely as a result of the elastic rebound associated with rifting. The elastic rebound in both NE and SW TR's shoulders is most likely responsible for the observed ridge morphology all along the TR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth and decay of oceanic volcanoes developed close to plate boundaries are intrinsically related to a competition between construction and destruction processes, partly controlled by tectonic strain and stresses. From morphologic, stratigraphic, tectonic and new high-precision K–Ar data, we present a comprehensive picture of the volcano-tectonic evolution of Santa Maria, and discuss its significance regarding the stress evolution and regional deformation in the Azores. Our new data show that: (1) the western flat portion of the island is mostly composed of west-dipping volcanic rocks here dated between 5.70 ± 0.08 and 5.33 ± 0.08 Ma, which we consider the remnants of an Older Shield Volcano; (2) more than half of this early volcanic complex has been removed by an east-directed large-scale sector collapse; (3) a second volcano, here coined the Younger Shield Volcano, grew rapidly on the collapse scar between at least 4.32 ± 0.06 and 3.94 ± 0.06 Ma; (4) more than half of this new volcano was removed by a second large-scale sector collapse most probably around 3.6 Ma, based on the ages of Parasitic Scoria Cones sitting unconformably on the Younger Shield Volcano; (5) the latest parasitic volcanic activity is here dated at 2.84 ± 0.04 Ma, extending significantly the known eruptive history of Santa Maria. Morpho-structural data (shape of the island, faults, dikes, and distribution of volcanic cones) show a significant control of construction and destruction along the N045° and N150° directions. The age of the lavas intruded by dikes suggests that the N045° and the N150° trends are ca. 5.3 Ma old and younger than ca. 4.3 Ma, respectively. Based on the new data, we conclude that a change in the regional stress field occurred between 5.3 and 4.3 Ma, most likely associated with a major reconfiguration of the Eurasia/Nubia plate boundary in the Azores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of volcanism near unstable plate triple junctions (TJs) offers a unique opportunity to investigate the interactions between mantle dynamics and lithospheric deformation in relation to short-term plate reconfiguration. From combined geochronological and geochemical analyses on Terceira, S. Jorge and Faial volcanic islands, we evidence contrasted modes of melt generation near the Azores Triple Junction during the last 1.3 Myr. The oldest lavas (> 800 ka) erupted along N150 elongated volcanic systems in S. Jorge and Faial have homogeneous isotopic compositions which partly overlap the compositional field of MORBs from the adjacent Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). In contrast, the younger lavas (< 750 ka) erupted along the N110 main structural direction on the three islands are significantly more enriched in LILE and LREE, and have more variable and generally more radiogenic Sr, Pb, Nd and Hf isotopic ratios. Altogether, our data do not support the presence of an active mantle plume under the central Azores. Instead, they suggest that magma generation results from decompression melting of a heterogeneously fertilized mantle (fossil plume?). The higher geochemical heterogeneity of the lavas erupted during the last 750 kyr likely reflects low-degree partial melting promoted by recent reactivation of pre-existing MAR Fracture Zones. We propose that the sub-aerial volcanism over the last 1.3 Myr in the central Azores records a sudden change in the conditions of melt generation, due to a major reconfiguration in regional deformation associated with the recent reorganization of the Eurasia–Nubia plate boundary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With very few exceptions, M > 4 tectonic earthquakes in the Azores show normal fault solution and occur away from the islands. Exceptionally, the 1998 shock was pure strike-slip and occurred within the northern edge of the Pico–Faial Ridge. Fault plane solutions show two possible planes of rupture striking ENE–WSW (dextral) and NNW–SSE (sinistral). The former has not been recognised in the Azores, but is parallel to the transform direction related to the relative motion between the Eurasia and Nubia plates. Therefore, the main question we address in the present study is: do transform faults related to the Eurasia/Nubia plate boundary exist in the Azores? Knowing that the main source of strain is related to plate kinematics, we conclude that the sinistral strike-slip NNW–SSE fault plane solution is not consistent with either the fault dip (ca. 65°, which is typical of a normal fault) or the ca. ENE–WSW direction of maximum extension; both are consistent with a normal fault, as observed in most major earthquakes on faults striking around NNW–SSE in the Azores. In contrast, the dextral strike-slip ENE–WSW fault plane solution is consistent with the transform direction related to the anticlockwise rotation of Nubia relative to Eurasia. Altogether, tectonic data, measured ground motion, observed destruction, and modelling are consistent with a dextral strike-slip source fault striking ENE–WSW. Furthermore, the bulk clockwise rotation measured by GPS is typical of bookshelf block rotations observed at the termination of such master strike-slip faults. Therefore, we suggest that the 1998 earthquake can be related to the WSW termination of a transform (ENE–WSW fault plane solution) associated with the Nubia–Eurasia diffuse plate boundary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a great lack of knowledge regarding the evolution of islands inside active oceanic rifts, in particular the meaning of the different evolutionary steps. Therefore, we conducted an investigation in Graciosa Island, which lies at the northwestern end of the Terceira Rift in the Azores Triple Junction, with the objective of constraining the evolution of the island in terms of volcanic growth and mass wasting, in particular the meaning and age of the destruction events. From digital elevation model (DEM) analysis, stratigraphic and tectonic observations, K/Ar dating on key samples, and available bathymetry and gravity data, we propose that Graciosa comprises five main volcanic complexes separated by major unconformities related to large scale mass wasting: (1) The older volcanic edifice (Serra das Fontes Complex) grew until ca. 700 ka, and was affected by a major flank collapse towards the southwest, which removed the whole SW flank, the summit and a part of the NE flank. (2) The Baía do Filipe Complex developed between at least 472 ka and 433 ka in two different ways: in the SW (presently offshore) as a main volcano, and in the NE unconformably over the sub-aerial remnants of the Serra das Fontes Complex, as secondary volcanic edifices. (3) The Baía do Filipe Complex was affected by a major flank collapse towards the SW, again removing most of the edifice. (4) The remnants of the Baía do Filipe Complex were covered in unconformity by the Serra Dormida Complex between ca. 330 and 300 ka, which in turn was unconformably covered by the younger Basaltic Cover Complex between ca. 300 ka and 214 ka. These two units were affected by a third major sector collapse that removed the whole western flank, the summit and part of the eastern flank of the Serra Dormida and Basaltic Cover complexes. (5) Despite the relatively young age of Graciosa, the collapse scars are not well preserved, and not active anymore. (6) A central-type volcano has been growing since at least 60 ka at the southeastern end of the island, inside the scar left by a fourth sector collapse towards the SE, which affected most previous complexes. Contemporaneously, parasitic strombolian cones formed all over the island. Despite the location of Graciosa inside the active Terceira Rift, the new data indicate that the evolution of the island has been driven by a competition between volcano growth and repeated destruction by catastrophic sector collapses, rather than by slow incremental faulting associated with the tectonics of the rift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We present new He isotopic data from subaerial and submarine samples collected along the Terceira Rift (Azores Plateau) in order to constrain the sources involved in the Azores magmatism in the unique geodynamic context of the Azores triple junction. Lower than MORB 4He/3He isotopic ratios were determined on olivines from the Terceira Island and the adjacent Serreta submarine ridge (down to ≈69,000; ≈10.5 R/Ra), which in addition to the Ne isotopes previously published in Madureira et al. (2005) [Primitive helium and neon isotopes in Terceira Island: Constraints on the origin of the Azores archipelago. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 233, 429–440], support the geochemical models that consider the involvement of the lower mantle in the Azores magmatism. The analysis of He data published for the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) points to the existence of chemically distinct mantle domains underneath Eurasia and Nubia lithospheric plates, which can result from an heterogeneous distribution of asthenosphere metasomatism during the initial stages of plume activity in the Azores region. At the Terceira Rift, lavas from Graciosa Island, as well as from the western end of São Miguel Island and D. João de Castro Bank, display 4He/3He ratios similar to those observed along the MAR segments located to the north of the Azores triple junction area. Conversely, samples from the south Hirondelle Basin and also Faial display a He isotopic signature similar to that of MORB erupted along MAR segments located to the south of the Azores Plateau. The Terceira Rift and the Azores triple junction area are thus characterized by the mingling of two different asthenospheric domains referred as “Eurasia” and “Nubia” type and by the presence of mantle plume derived material having primitive helium signature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We use GPS, bathymetric/structural, and seismic data to define the pattern of present deformation along the northern half of the Azores plateau, where the Nubia–Eurasia plate boundary terminates at the axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). New and existing campaign GPS velocities from the Azores islands reveal extension oblique to a series of en échelon volcanic ridges occupied by Terceira, S. Jorge, Pico, and Faial islands. In a frame of reference defined by 69 continuous GPS stations on the Eurasia plate, Terceira Island moves away from Eurasia, consistent with the islandʼs location within the Terceira Rift and plate boundary structure. The volcanic ridges south of the Terceira Rift move toward WSW at progressively faster rates, reaching a maximum of ( ) for the Pico/Faial volcanic ridge. The hypothesis that the Terceira Rift accommodates all Nubia–Eurasia plate motion is rejected at high confidence level based on the motions of sites on S. Jorge Island just west of Terceira Rift. All of the islands move relative to the Nubia plate, with Pico Island exhibiting the slowest motion, only ( ). Detailed bathymetry from the interior of the hypothesized Azores microplate reveals faults that crosscut young MAR seafloor fabric. These observations and the GPS evidence for distributed deformation described above argue against the existence of a rigid or semi-rigid Azores microplate, and instead suggest that Nubia–Eurasia plate motion is accommodated by extension across a ∼140-km-wide zone east of the MAR axis, most likely bounded to the north by the northern shoulder of the Terceira Rift. The MAR spreading rate along the western end of the Azores deformation zone (∼38.5°N–39.5°N) is intermediate between the Eurasia–North America rate measured at 39.5°N and the Nubia–North America rate measured at 38.5°N, consistent with the joint conclusions that the Nubia–Eurasia boundary is broad where it intersects the MAR, and the Azores Triple Junction is diffuse rather than discrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A network of geodetic markers for high-precision Global Positioning System (GPS) surveying was established in 2001 in the island of São Jorge, at the Azores triple junction, where the North America–Eurasia–Nubia plates meet. The aim was to monitor tectonic, volcanic, and landslide-induced surface deformation in an active tectono-volcanic region. The network consisted of 17 stations, and was occupied in 2001, 2004, and 2010. GPS observations from the three episodic campaigns were analyzed using the latest geophysical models and geodetic procedures to generate a velocity field for São Jorge Island. Surface velocities estimated at 15 inland locations reveal that São Jorge is moving neither with Eurasia nor with Nubia and presents two sectors with different behavior. The NW sector of the island is moving at a rate of 2.2±0.3mm/yr to N82°±6° while the SE sector is moving at a rate of 1.4±0.3mm/yr to N109°±11°, when compared to the velocity of Nubia predicted by ITRF2008-PMM. This velocity field cannot be explained by slip along the active faults that cross the island, nor is compatible with volcanic deformation on the active volcanic rift zones. It is suggested that the velocity differences that are measured represent deformation related to local sub-surficial magmatic/volcanic processes occurring near the island. This intra-island deformation may also be related to the stress field and seafloor spreading occurring in an area situated on the western sector of the Azores Plateau, reflecting the presence of WNW–ESE volcanic structures, along which magma intrusion produces NE–SW dilatation, bounded to the East by a NE–SW trending structure, probably of tectonic nature, working as a dextral transfer zone. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Situated in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the Azores plateau is a region of elevated topography encompassing the triple junction between the Eurasian, Nubian and North American plates. The plateau is crossed by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and the Terceira Rift is generally thought of as its northern boundary. The origin of the plateau and of the Terceira Rift is still under debate. This region is associated with active volcanism. Geophysical data describe complex tectonic and seismic patterns. The mantle under this region is characterized by anomalously slow seismic velocities. However, this mantle structure has not yet been used to quantitatively assess the influence of the mantle dynamics on the surface tectonics. In this study, we use a highly resolved tomography model to model the convection occurring in the mantle beneath the Azores region. The convection pattern points out two distinct upwelling, thus proving that the volcanism emplacement is created by a buoyant mantle upwelling. The modeled dynamic topography recovers well the characteristics of the depth anomaly associated with the Azores plateau, except for the south-eastern most part, thus proving that most of the depth anomaly associated with the Azores plateau is created by the present-day mantle dynamics. The stresses induced by the mantle convection can account for the rifting regime observed over the Azores plateau and the Terceira Rift, and its consequences in terms of surface morphology and seismicity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The morpho-structural evolution of oceanic islands results from competition between volcano growth and partial destruction by mass-wasting processes. We present here a multi-disciplinary study of the successive stages of development of Faial (Azores) during the last 1Myr. Using high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM), and new K/Ar, tectonic, and magnetic data, we reconstruct the rapidly evolving topography at successive stages, in response to complex interactions between volcanic construction and mass wasting, including the development of a graben. We show that: (1) sub-aerial evolution of the island first involved the rapid growth of a large elongated volcano at ca. 0.85Ma, followed by its partial destruction over half a million years; (2) beginning about 360ka a new small edifice grew on the NE of the island, and was subsequently cut by normal faults responsible for initiation of the graben; (3) after an apparent pause of ca. 250kyr, the large Central Volcano (CV) developed on the western side of the island at ca 120ka, accumulating a thick pile of lava flows in less than 20kyr, which were partly channelized within the graben; (4) the period between 120ka and 40ka is marked by widespread deformation at the island scale, including westward propagation of faulting and associated erosion of the graben walls, which produced sedimentary deposits; subsequent growth of the CV at 40ka was then constrained within the graben, with lava flowing onto the sediments up to the eastern shore; (5) the island evolution during the Holocene involves basaltic volcanic activity along the main southern faults and pyroclastic eruptions associated with the formation of a caldera volcano–tectonic depression. We conclude that the whole evolution of Faial Island has been characterized by successive short volcanic pulses probably controlled by brief episodes of regional deformation. Each pulse has been separated by considerable periods of volcanic inactivity during which the Faial graben gradually developed. We propose that the volume loss associated with sudden magma extraction from a shallow reservoir in different episodes triggered incremental downward graben movement, as observed historically, when immediate vertical collapse of up to 2m was observed along the western segments of the graben at the end of the Capelinhos eruptive crises (1957–58). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We present the results of six GPS (Global Positioning System) campaigns held in Terceira Island (Azores) between 1999 and 2006 for a group of 17 stations, to estimate the surface displacement field induced by the Eurasian–Nubian interplate motion, and their relationship with the rifting along Terceira Rift and volcanic processes at the island scale. We show that the whole island mainly behaves like a rigid body which absolute motion is closer to Eurasia. The magnitude of the computed intra-island horizontal deformation field (difference between the individual site velocities and the mean rigid-body motion) is still below the observation accuracy, and so cannot be directly related with local processes. We also show that the island is globally subsiding with an average rate close to 1mm/yr, as it moves to the NE away from the Terceira Rift, mostly attached to the Eurasian plate. The high subsidence rate can be the result of the volcanic processes that shaped the Serreta ridge, NW of Terceira. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bathymodiolus azoricus, thriving at Mid-Atlantic Ridge deep vents, benefits from a symbiosis with methane- and sulphide-oxidising (MOX and SOX) bacteria, and feeds on particulate and dissolved organic matter. To investigate the temporal evolution in their nutrition adult mussels were collected from one location at the Menez Gwen vent site (817 m depth) on four occasions between 2006 and 2007 and studied using different techniques, including stable isotope analyses and FISH. Gill and mantle tissues δ13C and δ15N signatures varied by 2–3‰ during the year and these variations were linked to fluctuations in tissue condition index, C and N contents and SOX/MOX volume ratios as quantified by 3D-FISH. October and January mussels presented a particularly poor condition, possibly related with the prolonged summer period of low sea-surface primary production and/or with the stress of the transplant to acoustically retrievable cages for the October mussels, and with their reproductive state in January mussels, since they were spawning. Our results point to the possibility that May mussels benefited from a pulse of sinking sea-surface plankton material. Results underline the dependency of stable isotopic signatures on the physiological state of the mussel at the time of collection, and on the type of tissue analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The late Pliocene to Quaternary (5 Ma) volcanism in the central and eastern Azores Archipelago is related to the Eurasia/Africa divergence, but a clear deformation pattern has not yet been established at this location. This work focuses on the contribution of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) scenes and Digital Elevation Models (DEM), complemented with geophysical, geodetic and morpho-structural data, to establish the geometric relationships between volcanic edifices and tectonic structures in the central and eastern Azores Archipelago. Bathymetric data were also used to extend field observations to the significant submarine area of the Azores plateau. Strikes of extension fractures, directly observed or inferred from elongated volcanic vents or linear volcanic clusters in Terceira Island, indicate that volcanism is mainly controlled by regional extension as given by NUVEL-1A plate motion model. Additionally, other directions were also detected for extension fractures around the Santa Barbara volcano (defining a radial pattern) and in the central part of the island (exhibiting an S-shape pattern). Although most of the volcanic vents are controlled by extension fractures, some seem to be controlled by faulting, such as the case of the ones rooted in releasing bends along strike-slip or oblique-slip faults in the central part of the island. Concerning the Azores plateau, most of the structures have directions that do not directly fit with present-day direction of relative motion (∼N70°) between Eurasia and Africa. Directions ranging from N110° to N125°, found mainly along the Terceira rift, are interpreted as ancient transform directions, reactivating as transtensional fault zones due to the present-day plate motion. N–S directions are also visible in the plateau, being interpreted as former middle-oceanic rift faults reactivated as left-lateral fault zones. These results contrast with the volcanic expression in other hotspot dominated oceanic islands such as the Canaries or the Hawaii islands chain, probably due to the tectonic complexity promoted by the Azores Triple Junction instability through time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: New K/Ar dating and geochemical analyses have been carried out on the WNW–ESE elongated oceanic island of S. Jorge to reconstruct the volcanic evolution of a linear ridge developed close to the Azores triple junction. We show that S. Jorge sub-aerial construction encompasses the last 1.3 Myr, a time interval far much longer than previously reported. The early development of the ridge involved a sub-aerial building phase exposed in the southeast end of the island and now constrained between 1.32±0.02 and 1.21±0.02 Ma. Basic lavas from this older stage are alkaline and enriched in incompatible elements, reflecting partial melting of an enriched mantle source. At least three differentiation cycles from alkaline basalts to mugearites are documented within this stage. The successive episodes of magma rising, storage and evolution suggest an intermittent re-opening of the magma feeding system, possibly due to recurrent tensional or trans-tensional tectonic events. Present data show a gap in sub-aerial volcanism before a second main ongoing building phase starting at about 750 ka. Sub-aerial construction of the S. Jorge ridge migrated progressively towards the west, but involved several overlapping volcanic episodes constrained along the main WNW–ESE structural axis of the island. Mafic magmas erupted during the second phase have been also generated by partial melting of an enriched mantle source. Trace element data suggest, however, variable and lower degrees of partial melting of a shallower mantle domain, which is interpreted as an increasing control of lithospheric deformation on the genesis and extraction of primitive melts during the last 750 kyr. The multi-stage development of the S. Jorge volcanic ridge over the last 1.3 Myr has most likely been greatly influenced by regional tectonics, controlled by deformation along the diffuse boundary between the Nubian and the Eurasian plates, and the increasing effect of sea-floor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Plate boundary geometry likely has an important influence on crustal production at mid-ocean ridges. Many studies have explored the effects of geometrical features such as transform offsets and oblique ridge segments on mantle flow and melting. This study investigates how triple junction (TJ) geometry may influence mantle dynamics. An earlier study [Georgen, J.E., Lin, J., 2002. Three-dimensional passive flow and temperature structure beneath oceanic ridge-ridge-ridge triple junctions. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 204, 115–132.] suggested that the effects of a ridge–ridge–ridge configuration are most pronounced under the branch with the slowest spreading rate. Thus, we create a three-dimensional, finite element, variable viscosity model that focuses on the slowest-diverging ridge of a triple junction with geometry similar to the Rodrigues TJ. This spreading axis may be considered to be analogous to the Southwest Indian Ridge. Within 100 km of the TJ, temperatures at depths within the partial melting zone and crustal thickness are predicted to increase by ~40 °C and 1 km, respectively. We also investigate the effects of differential motion of the TJ with respect to the underlying mantle, by imposing bottom model boundary conditions replicating (a) absolute plate motion and (b) a three-dimensional solution for plate-driven and density-driven asthenospheric flow in the African region. Neither of these basal boundary conditions significantly affects the model solutions, suggesting that the system is dominated by the divergence of the surface places. Finally, we explore how varying spreading rate magnitudes affects TJ geodynamics. When ridge divergence rates are all relatively slow (i.e., with plate kinematics similar to the Azores TJ), significant along-axis increases in mantle temperature and crustal thickness are calculated. At depths within the partial melting zone, temperatures are predicted to increase by ~150 °C, similar to the excess temperatures associated with mantle plumes. Likewise, crustal thickness is calculated to increase by approximately 6 km over the 200 km of ridge closest to the TJ. These results could imply that some component of the excess volcanism observed in geologic settings such as the Terceira Rift may be attributed to the effects of TJ geometry, although the important influence of features like nearby hotspots (e.g., the Azores hotspot) cannot be evaluated without additional numerical modeling. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We have studied the focal mechanisms of the 1980, 1997 and 1998 earthquakes in the Azores region from body-wave inversion of digital GDSN (Global Digital Seismograph Network) and broadband data. For the 1980 and 1998 shocks, we have obtained strike–slip faulting, with the rupture process made up of two sub-events in both shocks, with total scalar seismic moments of 1.9×1019 Nm (M w =6.8) and 1.4×1018 Nm (M w =6.0), respectively. For the 1997 shock, we have obtained a normal faulting mechanism, with the rupture process made up of three sub-events, with a total scalar seismic moment of 7.7×1017 Nm (M w =5.9). A common characteristic of these three earthquakes was the shallow focal depth, less than 10 km, in agreement with the oceanic-type crust. From the directivity function of Rayleigh (LR) waves, we have identified the NW–SE plane as the rupture plane for the 1980 and 1998 earthquakes with the rupture propagating to the SE. Slow rupture velocity, about of 1.5 km/s, has been estimated from directivity function for the 1980 and 1998 earthquakes. From spectral analysis and body-wave inversion, fault dimensions, stress drop and average slip have been estimated. Focal mechanisms of the three earthquakes we have studied, together with focal mechanisms obtained by other authors, have been used in order to obtain a seismotectonic model for the Azores region. We have found different types of behaviour present along the region. It can be divided into two zones: Zone I, from 30°W to 27°W; Zone II, from 27°W to 23°W, with a change in the seismicity and stress direction from Zone I. In Zone I, the total seismic moment tensor obtained corresponded to left-lateral strike–slip faulting with horizontal pressure and tension axes in the E–W and N–S directions, respectively. In Zone II, the total seismic moment tensor corresponded to normal faulting, with a horizontal tension axis trending NE–SW, normal to the Terceira Ridge. The stress pattern for the whole region corresponds to horizontal extension with an average seismic slip rate of 4.4 mm/yr. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The studies of Azores seismicity generally show shocks with either normal faulting or right-lateral strike-slip along the ESE direction, compatible with a eastward relative motion of the Eurasian (EU) relative to the African (AF) plate. However, the 1 January 1980 earthquake was interpreted as a clear left-lateral strike-slip shock along the N150E direction. This pattern is difficult to explain in terms of the relative motion between the EU, AF and North American (NA) plates: all available models for the present day movement of this triple junction fail to explain the regional variability in the stress conditions of the area. Here we present data from a 34-day long Ocean Bottom Seismograph array deployment. We show that the seismicity is distributed along a band aligned with the island chain itself, and is concentrated along several faults with an approximate N150E strike, cutting the Azores plateau in all the area covered by the OBS network. The combination of these new results with other geophysical data permits us to conclude that the tectonic setting of the Azores plateau is characterised by the existence of two sets of faults, in the N120E and N150E directions, defining several crustal blocks, whose relative motion accommodates the interaction of the three megaplates. The deformation of these tectonic blocks is probably driven by the shear between the EU and AF plates. This model explains well the spatial variability of the stress conditions in the Azores domain, the combination of dextral and sinistral strike slip mechanisms and the observed seismotectonics of the Azores islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pico-Faial ridge is a steep WNW-ESE volcanic ridge that has developed within the Nubia-Eurasia diffuse plate boundary, close to the Azores Triple Junction. The ridge comprises two islands, Pico and Faial, separated by a shallow (<100 m depth) and narrow (<8 km) channel. Despite some similarities, the two islands show contrasting features still deserving explanation: (1) meaning of GPS data; (2) meaning of palaeomagnetic data; (3) the island-scale Faial Graben does not have a counterpart in Pico; (4) both islands comprise a main central volcano each, but the one in Faial is symmetrical and the one in Pico is asymmetrical; (5) Pico shows evidence of at least two large-scale flank collapses, but none has been recognized so far in Faial. The new data reported here lead to the following probable answers: (1) the GPS data show much larger vertical and horizontal ground motions in Faial, which could be the result of recent volcanism and tectonics; (2) the cyclicity inferred from the paleomagnetic data in Pico could be related to inflation/deflation cycles that could have triggered the inferred flank collapses; (3) the Faial Graben ends abruptly at the eastern edge of the island, which we interpret as inhibited propagation to the east because of the load and stresses imposed by the nearby large Pico Volcano; (4) we attribute the asymmetry of the Pico Volcano to partial flank collapse recognizable in new offshore seismic profiles; (5) either the Faial island is actually gravitationally more stable, or there have been flank collapses not yet recognized. All these processes have concurred to shape the two islands and the ridge to their current morphology, but the current morphologies of Pico and Faial result mainly from three of these processes: volcanism, tectonics and large-scale landslides. • Pico-Faial ridge comprises two islands geologically/morphologically very different. • We show how geological processes have concurred to shape the ridge. • Large-scale landslides are confirmed by marine geophysics around Pico Island. • Four flank collapses in Pico have greatly controlled its current geomorphology. • Faial is dominated by an island-scale graben and Pico by a major volcano. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]