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The self has a significant influence on human cognition across different processing domains (memory, perception, attention, action). For example, research often finds self-biases in cognition - the phenomena whereby people show enhanced cognitive processing for information processed in relation to the self, than for information processed in relation to someone else, or in other ways. Given that the self influences cognition, it follows that any individual with an impoverished self-concept should have diminished self-bias capacity/profile. Potentially, this is highly relevant for our understanding of autism spectrum conditions (ASC), which is characterised by atypical development of both the understanding of self (meta-cognition) and of other people (mindreading). One possible reason for this might be that self-other distinction is impaired - e.g., people are processing self-referential information similarly to other-referential information. However, empirical evidence for impaired self-bias in ASC is inconsistent, and importantly, as of yet, no theory or explanation has been put forward that fully accounts for the discrepancy. Therefore, across five experimental chapters (a total of 11 experiments), this thesis investigates typical and atypical self-referential cognition by analysing evidence of self-biases in neurotypical adults and adults with ASC, in the domains of perception, action, and mental states. Chapter 2 (mental-state level) found that whereas neurotypical participants (N = 28) showed a moderate-to-large and statistically significant ownership effect in Experiment 1.2, autistic (N = 28) participants showed a small and statistically non-significant effect (i.e. comparable memory for items encoded in relation to the self and in relation to the experimenter). Importantly however, Chi-squared analysis revealed that there was no categorical difference between groups in the number of people who did/did not display an ownership effect, which suggests that although the size of the ownership effect was smaller in ASC (as shown by our continuous variable analysis), autistic participants were no less likely than neurotypical participants to display an ownership effect, thus suggesting that the ownership effect is not definitively impaired in autism. Furthermore, the ownership effect was unrelated to the number of autistic traits in either the case-control sample (Experiment 1.2: N = 56) or in a larger sample of neurotypical adults (Experiment 1.1: N = 100). Chapter 3 (mental-state level) investigated scene construction - the ability to mentally generate (i.e., imagine) and maintain a coherent spatial scene/event in mind (critical for episodic simulation), and found that scene construction ability was diminished (i.e., lower in quality) in autistic (N = 55) compared to neurotypical (N=62) adults, and was negatively associated with autistic traits. However, the ability to infer others' mental states (i.e. Theory of Mind; ToM) and to recognise emotions in oneself (i.e. alexithymia) were found to be better predictors of scene construction ability than an autism diagnosis. The frequency of descriptions of sensory experiences (which followed the same pattern in both groups: sight > sound > touch = smell > taste) and self-reference did not differ between groups. Chapter 4 (perceptual level) presented two experiments that aimed to test findings of undiminished perceptual self-bias in ASC when using unfamiliar stimuli Both in a case-control sample (pre-registered Experiment 3.2: N = 57), and in a sample of neurotypical adults (Experiment 3.1: N = 59), behavioural results showed that participants experienced both a self-bias and a familiarity effect. Importantly, the number of autistic traits was unrelated to the magnitude of self-bias and familiarity effects on RT or accuracy (in Experiments 3.1 and 3.2) and there was no between-group difference in the speed and accuracy of self-bias and familiarity effects (Experiment 3.2). Analysis of the ERP indices revealed clear evidence of a self-bias in both groups, with self trials eliciting larger N1 and P3 components than familiar ('friend') and unfamiliar ('stranger') other trials. Furthermore, the familiarity effect was largely absent on ERP measures, though the ASC group elicited some modulation of N2 reflecting familiarity conflict. Chapter 5 (mental-state level) investigated the malleability of self and other representations. In two neurotypical adult samples, we found evidence of both simulation induced malleability (Experiment 4.1; N = 163) and self-reflection induced malleability (Experiment 4.2; N = 162). Furthermore, the size of simulation induced malleability was positively associated with the number of autistic traits, but only when the simulated other was considered as the "average person" and not a "similar-other". Furthermore, in two pre-registered case-control experiments, there was greater simulation induced malleability in autistic than neurotypical adults (Experiment 4.3; N = 50) irrespective of similarity of the target, but no self-reflection induced malleability was observed in either diagnosis group (Experiment 4.4; N = 49). Chapter 6 (action level) measured participants' ability to distinguish their own motor repertoire from those displayed by other people of differing levels of similarity - specifically, the self vs. unfamiliar adult (similar-other) vs. unfamiliar child (dissimilar-other). We found a typical imitative compatibility effect in behavioural performance, which was not associated with the number of autistic traits (Experiments 5.1 and 5.2), and did not differ between neurotypical and autistic participants (Experiment 5.2). Furthermore, associated mu/alpha (8-13Hz) and beta (13-35Hz) desynchronisation - which are thought to reflect an index of mirror neuron activity - also did not reveal consistent differences between groups (Experiment 5.2). However, the key manipulation here, the referent effect, did not show any effect in behavioural performance (Experiment 5.1 and 5.2), and the imitative compatibility effect in mu/alpha and beta did not differ between referents (Experiment 5.2). The theoretical and practical implications of these findings for our understanding of self-awareness/self-referential cognition in ASC and in the neurotypical population, are discussed.

Background: Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) is a common birth defect and one third of infants with CHD require surgical intervention. Hospitalisation for surgery involves physical separation from caregivers, an aversive environment, and frequent invasive procedures; yet there is limited research about the impact of cardiac experiences upon infants' mental health (IMH). Measurement challenges present a barrier to exploring IMH in the CHD population. The Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) is a validated questionnaire that has been recommended as offering promise in routine clinical practice; however, use of this questionnaire in the CHD population is required in the first instance. Aims: This exploratory study aimed to develop an understanding of the impact of illness, hospitalisation, and cardiac surgery on the infants developing mental health (MH), as perceived by primary caregivers. This study also explored caregivers' experiences of completing an IMH questionnaire (the BITSEA), including their views on administration method, relevance of items, and perspectives about this being used more routinely in cardiac services. Methods: Seven primary caregivers engaged in semi-structured interviews and completed the questionnaire self-report. Data was analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis, adopting a critical realist stance. Descriptive information from the questionnaire further characterised caregiver reported IMH. Results: Analysis generated the following themes: "Just a Baby" - Very Young Infants are Immune to Early Experiences; Improved IMH following Cardiac Surgery; and Lasting Impacts of Cardiac Experiences, with three subthemes reflecting different facets of IMH. Factors perceived to have impacted the infants' MH during hospitalisation generated two themes: Promoters of IMH and Destabilisers of IMH. Two themes and one sub-theme were developed regarding experiences of the questionnaire: IMH Questionnaire Accepted, Contingent on Explanation and Timing, and Self-Report Preferred, Promotes Processing and Honesty. These findings expand theoretical understandings of IMH in the CHD population and have clinical implications.

This PhD study investigates the impact on health and well-being of the acculturation experiences of Chinese international postgraduate taught (PGT) students in Scotland. This is an important topic, as these students have only one year to acculturate to a qualitatively different social and educational environment. However, at present, there is little research on the psychological needs of Chinese students in Scottish higher education institutions. This is particularly true of their acculturation experiences in informal and recreational settings outside of study, work and home environments, which are known as third spaces. This PhD study, therefore, responds to previous calls by academics to comprehensively examine the critical factors that influence Chinese PGT students' health and well-being during their acculturation in Scotland, including their involvement in third spaces. This thesis is divided into two studies. Both studies adopted a qualitative research design centred on semi-structured interviews. Twelve participants from the University of Glasgow were selected for each study. Specifically, Study One explored Chinese PGT students' overseas experiences of acculturation in Scotland. This study used the diagrammatic elicitation task to generate in-depth discussions of participants' acculturation experiences throughout the academic year. During the interviews for Study One, the majority of the participants identified exercise as the most important third space activity for their psychological well-being. This finding, therefore, formed the basis of Study Two, which investigated how exercise affected participants' well-being. Since Study Two took place during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, it also explored how COVID-19-related lockdown and social distancing measures influenced the students in question. Thematic analysis was employed to make sense of the data. Furthermore, Study One used Martin Seligman's theory of PERMA (positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment) to contextualise and interpret Chinese students' psychological wellbeing and third space participation. To reflect the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak, Study Two adopted Paul Wong's modified PERMA themes to incorporate the universal distress and lack of well-being of the COVID-19 age. This PhD study, therefore, offers distinctive insights into the participants' complex acculturative experiences in Scotland before and during the pandemic. The findings of Studies One and Two suggest that many Chinese international PGT students who found their third space were able to live a socially active life, thereby avoiding the dangers of isolation in confined student accommodations, in particular during the Christmas break and lockdown. Their third space experience significantly helped their acculturation, well-being and personal growth, both before and during the pandemic. Compared to students who chose not to engage with third spaces, or who engaged with them in a very limited way, those who took advantage of such spaces were likely to have a thriving and more meaningful international education experience. This result was largely due to a strengthened social network (positive relationships in the PERMA model), additional emotional support from peers (positive emotions), and engagement in an active lifestyle (engagement). . Based on these findings, it would be beneficial for many Chinese students to consider focusing on 'positive relationships' to support a smooth acculturation during challenging times. For example, in cases of mandatory isolation (e.g., a pandemic), the extra socialisation opportunities offered by third spaces are possibly even more important than before, given that many international students may lack the face-to-face and immediate support of classmates and university staff over a considerable period. Studies One and Two expand on the existing literature and highlight the importance of third space groups, which have been thus far overlooked by many academics, in creating a happy and meaningful experience for many Chinese PGT students in a Western society. This knowledge can serve as a catalyst for better supporting this group of students in their acculturation from China to the United Kingdom.

Within the existing literature on chemsex there is little research exploring the phenomenon of problematic chemsex, and whilst some descriptive data on signs of problematic use exists, there is a gap in the literature when it comes to understanding the lived experience of engaging in problematic chemsex. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the lived experience of Men who have Sex with Men (MSM) and have experienced problematic chemsex. This was a qualitative study employing Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore and make sense of the lived experience of nine male participants. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews that explored the use of chemsex, when and how they noticed it became problematic, how they stopped and what may have contributed to their problematic use. Subsequently three superordinate themes were identified (1) The Journey to Problematic Chemsex, (2) The Function of Problematic Chemsex and (3) Making Sense of the Self. Problematic chemsex appears to be a phenomenon within the phenomenon of chemsex. Chemsex played particular roles for participants, including fulfilling their physical and emotional needs that were going unmet when sober, and so appealing there was a longing their experiences high could exist when sober. Several used chemsex to face and accept painful parts of the self and find different ways of coping and tolerating emotional distress. Implications for counselling psychology and other healthcare professionals are discussed, with suggestions for future research made.

This thesis covers eleven empirical studies across four topics, all relating to how the underlying information processing systems behind various behavioural effects and performances can be explored through a computational framework. Specifically, how an evidence accumulation model framework can be used to get insights into these behaviours. The thesis begins with a general introduction to the different topics and empirical studies that will be explored. After the general introduction, the second chapter explores whether the conjunction fallacy phenomenon can be transposed from its traditional descriptive scenario-based experimental context to the psychophysical domain, in order to produce datasets better suited to modelling procedures. Next an evidence accumulation model is applied to reveal the exact information processing structure that is argued to be responsible for producing the conjunction fallacy. The third chapter introduces another cognitive effect known as the interference effect. A series of experiments then explore the extent of this effect. The argument is then made that this effect functions as a constraint on theories and models attempting to explain non-normative behaviour, such as evidence accumulation models. The subsequent chapter extends the evidence accumulation model from chapter two, to the interference effect observed in chapter three. This chapter goes on to propose that a simple process account of the interference effect may provide an equally plausible explanation for this effect. The fifth chapter extends the evidence accumulation model framework to a visual search task. This is done to explore how evidence accumulation models provide insights into the main performance drivers of a task. This chapter proposes that such models can function as an additional layer of analysis, to more deeply understand performance drivers, even in tasks with simple objectives. Finally, a conclusion on the main point throughout this thesis is presented.

Black individuals continue to be underrepresented within the field of counselling psychology (CoP). This is concerning given that the UK's social demographic is becoming more diverse. A workforce that fails to mirror the diverse client groups that psychologists see can lead to poor clinical outcomes for Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) clients. Furthermore, a plethora of research has provided important insights into the experiences of BME trainee CoPs, the experiences of BME and Black trainees in other related psychology professional courses, and the impact of these experiences on clinical practice and the wider psychology profession. Whilst the term BME includes 'Black', it has been argued that the term BME conceals and homogenises the differences between Black and other ethnic minorities and thus fails to adequately capture the nuanced, diverse, and specific lived experiences of Black individuals (DaCosta,2021). Furthermore, there is no research in the academic literature that has focused on the experiences of Black trainee CoPs. This study explored the experiences of Black trainee CoPs in the UK. Eight participants were recruited through purposive sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and the transcripts were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Four superordinate themes with two to four sub-themes emerged from the analysis. The first superordinate theme, 'Identity', reflected the complexities of participants' Black identity and intersecting identities in influencing the way they negotiated the course. The second superordinate theme, 'Black and in training', encompassed the challenges that participants faced in navigating various aspects of their training including discussions on racism, placement, and the impact of their socioeconomic background. The third superordinate theme, 'The challenge of balancing various professional and personal demands', captured how participants managed the various professional and personal demands placed on them during training. The final superordinate theme, 'Recommendations and suggestions to improve access and representation of Black individuals within the CoP field', included the varied and multi-layered approach that participants believed could be implemented to improve the representation of Black individuals within the CoP field. Implications of the findings are discussed, with suggestions for future research.

Objective: Emotional and physiological regulation, as well as psychological flexibility (PF), are important elements in improving coping with trauma symptoms. Trauma-focused acceptance and commitment therapy (TF-ACT) is emerging as having positive outcomes in reducing trauma symptoms as well as being linked to positive outcomes such as improved quality of life. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and Complex PTSD (CPTSD) are debilitating conditions which are linked to comorbid conditions such as anxiety and depression and experiential avoidance (EA), and furthermore, when young people suffer from PTSD or CPTSD, this can have long-term detrimental outcomes and negatively affect their life course. Given that the remote ACT-based integrative intervention delivered in this study includes somatic experiencing (SE) and psychosensory elements, it is aimed at increasing PF and emotional and physiological regulation, which holds potential for reducing EA and fostering improved quality of life via pursuit of intrinsic values. Methods: This study used a mixed-methods, multiple single-case design to explore the acceptability and effects of a six-week remote ACT-based integrative intervention for four 18-25-year-old participants experiencing trauma symptoms. Results: Overall PF improvements were replicated and maintained in all four participants at follow-up. Effect size of change calculated using percentage of non-overlapping data showed ranges from small to large effect (28%-100%). All participants rated the intervention as acceptable and also experienced reliable decrease in depression levels with moderate to large effect size (42.85%-100% PND). Significant and reliable improvements in quality of life were replicated and maintained in three of the four participants. Significant and reliable improvements were also replicated for PTSD symptoms in all four participants. Three participants saw a reliable and significant decrease in CPTSD symptoms, although one participant showed an increase in CPTSD levels baseline to follow-up. Three participants also showed significant and reliable decrease in anxiety levels effect size ranging from 42.85% to 87.71% (PND). Qualitative data added further validity to the importance of the ACT processes' contribution to perceived change and the participants' attribution for this. Conclusion: This study was exploratory in nature and the resulting evidence points towards this intervention being of benefit to many young people with trauma symptoms, particularly in the development of self-regulation and reducing the intrusive nature of trauma. It seems that this form of intervention can be efficacious in improving overall psychological flexibility. Although there were many improvements in several measures for all of the participants, for one particular participant there was an increase in CPTSD levels, which prompts discussion around the effectiveness of this intervention for some individuals.

Well siblings of adolescents with mental health difficulties often fall risk to becoming the "forgotten family members" (Bowman et al., 2014, p. 269), yet they have an increased vulnerability to developing psychological difficulties (Barnett & Hunter, 2012). Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is an illness that frequently develops in adolescence and is regularly found to elicit powerful emotions, consequently having an overwhelming impact on the family system (Dimitropoulos et al., 2009). Moreover, changes that occur during adolescence can play a critical role in shaping psychosocial and neurobiological development (Kim, 2021). However, research surrounding the experience of siblings into adulthood is sparse. The present study addresses this gap in the literature and offers insights into the lived experiences of adults who grew up with a sibling suffering from AN during adolescence. The data was collected through individual, semi-structured interviews of six participants over the age of 25. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis shed light on the following themes: Position within the Family, Fracture and Separation, and How do we address it? The study emphasises the need for including siblings in AN treatment and recognizing their experiences to provide appropriate trauma-informed support, education, and interventions.

This portfolio focuses on the significance of culture pertaining to Hoarding Disorder (HD) and other aspects of social structures that impact Mental Health (MH). The research study is titled 'Exploration of culture in relation to HD' given the limited research into this field with regards to cultural impact/influence. Twelve participants were surveyed and interviewed for IPA analysis, with four participants categorised to one of the three assigned racial-cultural cohorts to explore the following: What are the lived experiences of individuals that suffer from HD, and hoarding related symptoms, between three of the largest racial demographics in the UK; Black, White and South Asian (SA)? Contrary to the current assertion by HD services, whereby there are no distinctions pertaining to racial-cultural backgrounds, findings from each participants analysis within this study exhibit several nuances and variations between each racial cohort of how HD is understood, managed and experienced; citing a strong basis for further research within the field of counselling psychology (CoP).

This thesis reports the empirical studies and the theoretical foundation implemented to investigate whether and how cognitive control is an embodied mechanism. Embodied cognition theories propose that higher-order cognitive functions are grounded in the activity of cerebral systems supporting lower-level sensorimotor interactions between the body and the environment. Specifically, the research project aims to investigate the role of sensorimotor representations evoked by body stimuli in modulating top-down inhibitory functions of motor responses. Six behavioural experiments formed a coherent sequence of hypotheses stemming from the first study's results and allowed further investigation of the phenomenon under study. Using the Go/No-go task, the different studies implemented a variety of stimuli, factors, and experimental designs to progress in understanding the behavioral modulation in inhibitory performance in the presence of body-related information. The first experiment tested the interference of images' bodily content in participants' inhibitory performance compared to non-body stimuli. The second experiment investigated the previous finding further by testing possible confound factors and the role of somatotopic- and action-related sensorimotor stimulus-response congruency between the observed body part and the effector used to respond. The third experiment tested the role of attention in mediating the previous effects. The fourth experiment aimed to dissociate the influence of body and motor representations by comparing different body parts that evoke body and motor representation to body parts that evoke only body representations. The fifth experiment expanded to the semantic level using body/action-related words instead of images. Finally, the sixth and last experiment included an additional feature of cognitive control, context monitoring. As a whole, the results of my Ph.D. research project show that sensorimotor representations evoked by the perception of body images modulate the performance in a motor inhibition task. The implications of the project challenge both embodied cognition and cognitive control theories. Regarding embodied cognition theories, the role of sensorimotor representations is not limited to basic cognitive functions but expands to higher executive functions through the evidence of the role of sensorimotor representations on higher executive functions as cognitive control. The results also support an alternative view on cognitive control, challenging the classical view of it as an amodal control system and suggesting that it adapts to specific elements and situations. The results of this research project demonstrate the need for more research around the reach of embodied cognition implications and the conceptualization of cognitive control. The latter is a crucial mechanism in everyday functioning and a core element in diagnosing and treating neuropsychological disorders.

Living with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) has a significant impact upon a person's life, and access to appropriate therapeutic support is imperative for this population. Despite this, DID has been the source of controversy for many years and people with these experiences can face professionals and a healthcare system that are ill equipped to support them. Research into treatment approaches for DID suggests that while therapy can be helpful it doesn't always result in reduced dissociation, and attrition is high. This study seeks to give voice to those with DID by exploring their lived experience of therapy and in the process develop a deeper understanding of psychological treatment for this population. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with eight people who identified as having DID, and data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Five Group Experiential Themes emerged from the analysis: 'Therapy as "the hardest thing that I have ever, ever done"', 'Therapy can harm', 'The therapeutic relationship makes it possible: "one person can just change your life"', 'The therapy process as "life changing": now there is "a fighting chance"', and 'Conflicted feelings towards therapy'. These findings illuminate the additional challenges that multiplicity can bring to therapy, suggesting that it can be a long and painful process. They also suggest that therapy can feel reminiscent of previous abuse, with short-term approaches sometimes causing more problems than they resolve. Participants conveyed various ways in which the therapeutic relationship changed their lives, inviting possibilities for previously unimaginable progress, and described how the therapy process can lead to real, sustainable change. Importantly, the findings also captured the intense ambivalence that those with DID can feel toward therapy, which can be simultaneously wanted and deeply feared. These findings are considered in relation to existing literature, and potential implications for clinical practice and future research are drawn.

Between March and September, 2020, the U.K. government enforced a nationwide lockdown to protect citizens against Covid-19. Children with social, emotional and mental health (SEMH) special educational needs and their parents stayed at home, and parents were responsible for home schooling their children with variable support from the schools they attended. Emerging global qualitative research and articles from news outlets in the U.K. reported the significant negative impact the lockdown was having on family dynamics, including rises in mental health difficulties. Orientated to psychoanalytic theories of SEMH needs, an impetus developed for exploring the impact of lockdown on the relational dynamics between mother and child. A review of literature found a gap in research exploring experiences of parents home educating primary aged children with SEMH needs as separate case studies. A psychosocial methodological approach was taken, orientated in psychosocial ontological and epistemological positions. Three mothers were recruited from a specialist primary SEMH provision where their son attended, and they were interviewed using Free Association Narrative Interviewing (Hollway and Jefferson, 2013) on two occasions. Participant experiences were analysed using thematic and psychosocial analysis. Findings suggested the mothers experienced the lockdown as emotionally straining to lesser or greater extents according to their personal circumstances and past experiences. All mothers struggled to home-school their sons, feeling anxiety for differing reasons. The relational dynamics between the mother-child dyads intensified due to being forced together with limited breaks from each other, leading to emotional challenges and several unconscious processes to be enacted, including splitting, projection, rationalisation, and humour. The research was justified as useful for educational psychologist (EP) practice as it elucidated the experiences of parents of SEMH needs, the relationship dynamic within families during lockdowns, and insight for EPs working with parents who are forced to home educate their children in the future.

The prevalence of mental health difficulties among children and adolescents appears to be increasing. In the UK, young people receive treatment for mental health difficulties in child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS), and those requiring the most intensive treatment receive this in inpatient CAMHS. Research into family caregiving in the context of mental health has favoured spousal relationships and other adult-to-adult relationships. Literature on parents caring for children has concentrated on physical illnesses or disabilities. Research has also favoured objective aspects of caregiver burden, with less attention given to subjective, psychological experiences. A qualitative, systematic review of the experiences of parents caring for children of any age with mental illnesses indicated that no research had explored the experiences of parents who have a child in inpatient CAMHS. As such, the aim of this research was to explore the subjective experiences of parents of children who are receiving treatment in inpatient CAMHS. In-depth interviews were conducted with fifteen parents of children in inpatient CAMHS wards in England. A critical realist ontology was maintained, and the research was conducted within a contextualist epistemology. A narrative analysis was conducted, using Frank's (1995/2013) narrative types (chaos, restitution, quest) as listening devices. Narratives of restitution and quest were not found to represent the parents' stories, so two new narrative types were proposed. The three narrative types therefore comprised: narratives of chaos, narratives of conflict, and narratives of distance. These reflected parents' responses to distressing situations and emotions, and their attempts to make sense of those experiences. The results are critically considered in relation to narrative theory and existing literature on caregiving, and the implications of the research are discussed. The narrative types may be used by clinicians working with parents to better understand their experiences and to tailor therapeutic interventions to support them.

In this study, I have grappled with the challenge of developing a start-to-finish qualitative research method deeply congruent with the ontology and epistemology of psychoanalysis. I have drawn on the history of psychoanalytic research interviewing, most specifically the work of Hollway and Jefferson (Free Association Narrative Interview, 2000/2013) and Holmes (Reverie Research Method, 2017, 2019), which has been thoroughly analysed and taken forward by Archard (e.g. 2019, 2021). Through a process of sifting and synthesising existing literature, I have produced a nine-step guide for undertaking psychoanalytically informed interviews and four novel data-analysis questions. I operationalised my method with a research informant on the topic of her experience of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service's (CAMHS) Initial Assessments. Questions of ethics permeate discussions around taking psychoanalytic concepts outside the context in which they developed (e.g. Holmes, 2019). I offer a contribution to this debate through consideration of how the unconscious is theorised in interview-based research. I draw upon Bollas's theory of the receptive unrepressed unconscious (e.g. 2006) and Bion's theory of thinking (1962/1991) to counter criticisms of researchers veering beyond the research brief, into analysing the informants themselves. This can happen when researchers interpret contents of the informant's repressed unconscious that may emerge in the research context. I illustrate how psychoanalytic supervision can be used in a novel way, contributing unconscious data from the freely associative conversation this entails. I then consider my data through the concept of parallel process (e.g. Morrissey & Tribe, 2001; Sumerel, 1994) as an ethical alternative to the controversial transport of the psychoanalytic concept of transference-countertransference dynamics out of the clinic setting. I chose substantial transcript excerpts for the vivid way in which they seem to capture the dynamic unconscious-to-unconscious communication process. I show how I explored these using my four data-analysis questions and in so doing, I take a step towards filling the methodological gap identified by Attride-Stirling (2001) regarding the need to analyse data in a systematic and clearly disclosed way. I am guided throughout by Bion's (1970/2004) proposition of the ultimately unknowable nature of reality and Allison's idea of a modest epistemology (cited in Stänicke et al., 2020).

The aim of this research is to contribute to the growing literature for how educational psychology services can support the outcomes of care experienced children and young people. Outcomes for children in care have been well documented and include educational under-attainment, under-representation in further education, over-representation in the criminal justice system, as well as a high prevalence of special educational needs and mental health disorders. By way of background to the present research, a systematic review of literature is presented, identifying the key features and components of interventions that support trauma-experienced children and young people in school. Rationale for the present study and research questions is offered. Data was extracted from the psychological reports of 36 children in care (aged 5 - 15) written by educational psychologists between 2017 and 2022. Qualitative document analysis explored the assessment methods, psychological formulations and recommended provision. Findings reveal (a) the range of assessment methods undertaken, (b) the psychological formulations offered to guide professionals in developing understanding of trauma-experiences and their impact on learning and related behaviours, and (c) the common themes in respect of recommended education provision for improving learning and wellbeing outcomes for this population. Findings are considered in relation to wider research for trauma-sensitive classroom practice. Implications for research and practice are considered with the introduction of a proposed framework for practice that may be helpful to educational psychologists working with children in care.

Risks taken by adolescents presenting to mental health services can be seen as a communication that, through treatment, can be understood. Psychotherapy can be thought of as an offer of time in which 'waiting with' a patient is therapeutic. However, this approach can conflict with the culture of pressured CAMHS services where the pull to act in response to patients' distress is strong. This research looks at how Child and Adolescent Psychoanalytic Psychotherapists (CAPT) manage the tension between the theoretical stance of waiting and an organisational pull to act. It focuses on adolescent patients who pose a risk to themselves from serious self-harm or suicidal ideation. Five interviews were conducted with CAPTs from clinics within a single NHS Trust where the dominant culture is one of fast action, without psychoanalytic thinking at the fore. Grounded Theory was used to pull together psychoanalytic thinking with data generated through interviewing. Reflexivity of the researcher's framing of the study, and influence on the interviews, is explored. Key findings: (1) a strong focus was seen on a specific kind of thoughtful action described here as an enhanced therapeutic dyad. It involved a process in which parents were sensitively brought into the therapeutic relationship and requested to take responsibility for certain actions to ensure their child's safety. The purpose of this action is primarily patient safety, but also promotes long-term change. (2) The impact of an organisation's capacity to acknowledge the presence of anxieties arising from the work on the ability of clinicians to contain patient anxieties and wait rather than act was noted. The first finding was unexpected and a recommendation is made for an explicit focus, during CAPT training, on the use of thoughtful action as part of therapeutic work with risky adolescents in pressured NHS services.

'Relationships and Sex Education' (RSE) is the first statutory guidance on Sexuality Education in England; making it compulsory. This follows many blaming the lack of statutory status for the poor quality of Sexuality Education. Despite this, a recent Ofsted review (2021) suggested it is still not consistently delivered effectively. Furthermore, some suggest RSE is not doing enough to tackle prevalent societal issues such as sexual harassment and violence, and the impact of misogynistic social influencers. While it is too early to look at the effects of the new RSE, it is not too early to look at its delivery, a precursor to achieving outcomes. As there is limited research on this, the research examines the delivery of RSE from the perspectives of those required to deliver it, teachers. The research utilised a mixed methods methodology to address the question 'What do secondary school teachers perceive the challenges to be when implementing the new RSE guidance and how can they overcome these?'. In phase 1 a survey collected data from 82 secondary school RSE teachers and in phase 2 interviews were conducted with 6 of these participants. Statistical analysis of the quantitative data was used to begin to address the question and reflexive thematic analysis of the interview data further enhanced this understanding. The results of the research suggest that barriers such as a lack of training and resources persist. However, they also suggest there are more complex challenges such as wider societal discourse about RSE and a culture of anxiety. In terms of overcoming these issues the results suggest a whole school approach with senior management support, that incorporates pupil voice and acknowledges the unique pedagogical requirements of RSE. The author concludes that teachers will find it incredibly difficult to implement RSE effectively in the current context, meaning more support is required.

This research explored the experiences of young people who have experienced direct or indirect discrimination due to race, culture or heritage, and their experience of support in their secondary school. It hopes to build awareness on a relatively under researched area within UK Schools and provide a space to hear the voices and experiences of young people. This insight into young people's experiences can support the adults around the child to understand challenges associated with experiencing discrimination. Five young people, aged between 14-15 years old, currently studying in year 10, were recruited through secondary schools in inner London area and interviewed. They chose voluntarily to speak about their experiences. Semi-structured interviews were used to consider experiences in which participants felt discriminated against during their time at secondary school. Participants were also asked to consider the support they feel is available and the effects of this, through a series of questions. IPA was used as the method of analysis in order to highlight their individual experiences. This research has highlighted a complex nature of racial discrimination in school and within the community. Participants noted how the subtle nature can make acts of discrimination difficult to prove, how these experiences can give rise to supportive relationships while straining others and noted the role of power within these experiences. They brought to light challenging emotions that arise as a result of racial discrimination and the lack of spaces available to share experiences and speak about these events in school settings. Participants also noted the importance of having a space to speak about racism and discrimination in a non-punitive way, not to assign blame but rather to open conversation, feel heard and create a dialogue where there is a sense of ongoing learning and shared understanding.

Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse are known to hold silence around the abusive events and their trauma distress. Existing scholarship suggests damaged abilities to trust as one reason for this, and thus trust becomes located as an impaired propensity in the mind of the survivor. Survivors and service providers alike report trust as important when accessing mental, physical, judicial or religious services, and yet very little empirical evidence exists which interrogates the mechanism of trust building, as opposed to generalised trust propensity. Epistemology into trust is hampered by obscured and conflated definitions, and in mental health settings by the apparent dislocation of the survivor's propensity to trust from the trustworthiness of their trustee - be that an individual, an institution or society. This study has interrogated trust for CSA survivors using a Mad Studies paradigm to address the research questions: How do survivors describe their own trusting abilities? What previous relational experiences inform survivors' ability and/or willingness to trust? How do survivors evaluate potential trustees? How does trust influence disclosure? Seventeen participants with a range of characteristics were recruited into the study, and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis used to analyse the data. The researcher is a CSA survivor and an autoethnographic account of her interaction with, and shaping of, the data offers a robust reflexivity to evidence the quality of the study. The findings demarcate generalised and relational trust; present a 'trust enactment model' of relational trust; delineate the process of building/repairing trust; and advance the utility of 'transactional trust'. The study foregrounds the centrality of trustee trustworthiness, thus challenging survivor trust deficiency as the sole trust-component in relationality when survivors seek services. The study identifies an epistemological lacuna regarding trustee trustworthiness, and indicates the necessity of further research to establish parameters of trustworthiness when working with CSA survivors.

The United Kingdom (UK) is a culturally diverse society, which has witnessed an increase in migration over the years. Despite this, not enough is known about migrant children's experiences from their perspective, particularly those in primary schools. This research explored first-generation migrant children's experiences of migration to the UK and adaptation in primary schools. This study aimed to gain insight how children make sense of the migration process, and the role school plays in their adaptation. By providing an opportunity for children to tell their stories, the study also aimed to provide a platform for their voices to be heard. Seven migrant children, aged between 6 to 11, were recruited through purposive sampling from primary schools in an inner-London borough. Semi- structured interviews were used to collect data and interpreters were used where necessary. Drawings were incorporated in the interview process as a stimulus for discussion. The data collected was transcribed and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, to provide an in-depth exploration of individual children's experiences, while also allowing for similarities and differences across their experiences to be explored. Five Group Experiential Themes were identified from participants' experiences: 'Migration: The Move, The Journey and Sense- Making', 'Life in the UK', 'Relationships: Loss, Changes and a Key to Adaptation', 'Adjusting to a New Linguistic Context', 'School Adaptation: Interconnection of Language, Social Factors and Learning'. Findings are presented then considered within the context of relevant literature and theoretical frameworks. Implications for migrant children and their families, schools and Educational Psychologists are discussed, alongside the study's limitations and areas for future research.

Over 10,000 young people in the UK transition from being in care to being a care leaver each year (Department for Education, 2021). Despite the prevalence of mental health difficulties among this group, available emotional support is argued to be inadequate (Ofsted, 2022). The Tree of Life is an arts-based collective narrative practice intervention rooted in narrative therapy; utilising the metaphor of a tree as a platform from which to reflect upon, develop and share personal narratives (Ncube, 2006). This has been found to be positively experienced by a range of groups. To date, no research has explored the Tree of Life with care leavers. This research aims to explore how the Tree of Life is experienced by this group. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with six care leavers who had engaged in the Tree of Life and the data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Findings revealed five Group Experiential Themes which summarised the participants' experiences: Uncertainty and discomfort, individual barriers and facilitators, developing identity, connecting with others and hope and motivation for the future. This research provides insight into how the Tree of Life is experienced by care leavers, thus providing valuable information as to how the emotional wellbeing of this group can be supported, by not just Educational Psychologists, but a range of stakeholders with a responsibility to this group. Findings may also be of interest to those involved in the designing and implementation of therapeutic interventions in a range of settings.

Being one of the essential skills in the 21st Century, financial literacy is important in its own right and for individuals' life-long financial well-being. Financial literacy has been associated with a series of positive financial outcomes in previous literature. However, we still know little about how financial literacy is related to individuals' mental well-being. This thesis aims to investigate the relationships between financial literacy, financial well-being and mental well-being among adults. To realise this, three empirical studies are conducted. The first empirical study examines the relationship between financial literacy and depressive symptoms, providing the first empirical evidence of the relationship between the two concepts in a middle-income setting: China. The second empirical study provides the first longitudinal investigation on the relationship between financial literacy and depression and its underlying economic pathways, using data from a nationally representative dataset: the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) based on the U.S. The third empirical study investigates the moderating role of financial literacy in the association between financial shocks and depression aiming to further enclose the relationship between financial literacy and mental well-being. The findings highlight both positive and negative effects of financial literacy on mental well-being. On one hand, financial literacy is significantly associated with fewer depressive symptoms and financial literacy may positively impact individuals' mental well-being either directly or indirectly operated through its influence on household finances such as income and wealth. On the other hand, when individuals experience financial shocks, financial literacy can magnify the negative effect of experiencing financial shocks on mental well-being. The findings suggest that investing in acquiring or sustaining financial literacy may have the potential to protect against depression and thus promote positive mental health in adults by assuring better financial well-being. However, the observed negative psychological effect of higher financial literacy suggests that the role of financial literacy on mental health is complex. Future research is needed to further understandings of the causal impact of enhancing financial literacy on mental well-being and of its complex and multifaceted underly mechanisms.

Autistic Spectrum Condition is a lifelong condition which impacts on social communication, restricted patterns of behaviour and differences in thinking patterns and sensory experiences, all of which are important elements to consider when seeking support from healthcare and other statutory services. To date much of the research into autistic experiences have focused on those of children, those with intellectual disabilities or those of non-autistic carers and professionals supporting autistic people. This research aims to bring the focus onto the experiences of non-autistic adults who do not have a co-occurring intellectual disability both when accessing healthcare for themselves and when advocating on behalf of their autistic children. These are issues of particular importance to the lead researcher who is herself an autistic adult without a co-occurring intellectual disability, and the parent of an autistic child. Paper 1 presents a systematic review of qualitative research into the experiences of autistic adults without a co-occurring intellectual disability when accessing healthcare within the UK. Previous research has focused on the experiences of autistic adults from around the world, and the purpose of this research was to offer a more focused look at the experiences of autistic adults living in the UK. This is to ensure that the findings and recommendations are specific to the UK healthcare system. A meta-ethnographic approach was used with twelve papers included in the final analysis. Three superordinate themes were identified: Professionals lack of knowledge can be damaging; Need to reduce processing demands, and Adaptation to improve engagement. The impact that these experiences have on the wellbeing of autistic adults accessing healthcare in the UK, and on their ability to engage with treatment, can ultimately be damaging to the individual and this came through in the research as a key consideration. This damage may come in the form of misdiagnosis, inadequate or inappropriate treatment being delivered, overwhelming environments and inaccessible systems. The first theme regarding the lack of autism knowledge and understanding from healthcare professionals, along with autistic adults' differences in communication and sensory experiences indicate there is a need for improved training developed with autistic adults. Adaptations that are specific to the needs of autistic adults should also be considered. Paper 2 uses interpretive phenomenological analysis to investigate the experiences of autistic parents when advocating for their autistic children. Being a parent is an important part of adult life for many people, including autistic people. Many parents of autistic children can find getting the right support for their children from healthcare and education difficult. Knowledge is currently poor about how this is experienced by parents who are also autistic themselves. Ten autistic mothers with autistic children in mainstream education were interviewed about their experiences of seeking support for their autistic children from services such as healthcare and education. Participants talked about finding the overall system being the main problem, rather than the individuals working in it, and about needing to fight to get the right support for their children. These are points that non-autistic parents have also raised before. Participants also talked about feeling judged and stigmatised for being autistic, and about struggling to manage sensory and communication difficulties, which is something that has not been talked about by non-autistic parents. Improving services to offer better support to autistic families is important and can be achieved through better training. This training should be developed and run by autistic adults and should focus on the positive aspects of autism, rather than the negative. These papers offer a look at the autistic experience of accessing services from the perspective of autistic parents, which is not a perspective that has had a lot of focus previously, and with a focus on autistic adults' experiences specifically in the UK, allowing for recommendations that are specific to the UK healthcare system. The findings from these papers have clinical implications for the ways in which services are set up and healthcare professionals are prepared for working with autistic adults. They also provide some insight into factors which may negatively impact on wellbeing for autistic adults, and reasons why they may present in mental health services, which is directly relevant to clinical psychology.

Ultra-high field (UHF) MRI offers higher signal-to-noise and contrast-to-noise ratios compared to lower B0-field strengths, which can be leveraged for improved spatial or temporal resolution, but suffers from B1+-field inhomogeneity, which can lead to artificial signal and contrast variations in an image. Parallel transmission excitation (pTx) systems allow non-identical radiofrequency (RF) pulses to be simultaneously applied, reducing excitation pulse duration, and increasing global excitation homogeneity, which can reduce image artifacts related to B1+-field inhomogeneity at UHF. Within-scan patient head motion can lead to imaging artifacts such as blurring or aliasing. Variation in image contrast caused by patient motion is related to the RF excitation, therefore requires prospective motion correction to recover contrast homogeneity. The added complexity of pulse design for pTx increases computation times past what is feasible for typical prospective motion correction, therefore an alternative method is required. In this thesis, a method was demonstrated in-silico for reducing the effects of patient head motion on radiofrequency field homogeneity for pTx. This was achieved by designing motion robust pulses (MRPs), which were optimised over the centred head position, and off-centre positions during initial pulse design, using B1+-maps simulated within a generic 8-channel pTx transmit array. The MRPs required multiple input B1+-maps which would increase scan complexity. Recent literature has been published demonstrating how a deep learning neural network could be used to estimate off-centre B1+-maps from a single B1+-map, collected at the centred position. This could improve the practicality of the MRPs, and would allow any desired combination of input B1+-maps. MRPs were designed using off-centre B1+-maps estimated from the centred position, and evaluated over simulated positions. Finally, a pseudo in-vivo investigation of the MRP design was performed using ten B1+-maps collected in-vivo using an 8-32-channel pTx/Rx coil (Nova Medical, MA, USA) within a Siemens 7T Magnetom scanner (Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany).

Rationale Loneliness is considered one of the greatest public health challenges of the 21st century, with young people reported to be among the worst affected. Indeed, adolescence has long been considered a period of life when loneliness can be particularly prevalent; however, it is only in recent years that this has been linked to the challenges of identity development. Constructing a sense of identity is widely understood to be a key developmental task of adolescence, yet there is limited research concerning disadvantaged populations who may be struggling with loneliness and finding a sense of self in the world. Aim This qualitative study aimed to capture how young people from disadvantaged backgrounds construct a sense of identity through the context of an informal learning programme, designed to enhance peer connectedness and reduce loneliness. Methodology Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven young people, aged 12-17 years, accessing informal learning workshops within a deprived suburb in the UK. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed, before being subjected to reflexive thematic analysis (RTA). Results Three overarching themes were generated through the analysis: A Strengthened Sense of Identity Through Embracing Difference, Who I am Depends on the Context I am in, and A More Emotionally Attuned Self. Discussion Findings are considered in the context of existing research, and implications for clinical practice and future research are noted. The study offers insights into how safe, inclusive and informal science learning may influence a stronger sense of personal, social and emotional identity in disadvantaged youth.

Background: There is limited evidence in the UK which examines the first-hand experiences of non-White care leavers. This is further limited when focusing specifically on experiences of living in a foster family of a different race and/or ethnicity to the individual. The present study aimed to explore the experiences of belonging and difference for non-White individuals who have experienced foster placements with families of a different race and/or ethnicity. Method: Four non-White care leavers all with experience of living in a White foster family were interviewed. The interviews were supported using photo elicitation and data were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Interviews explored the way participants make sense of their care experience and how that has shaped them as care leavers. Results: Participants described an experience of feeling like the odd one out, much of which was influenced by systemic racism and the barriers to cultural connection. Participants found ways to reconnect and find a sense of belonging. This was achieved during and after care by accessing opportunities to create the 'little family'. Participants were particularly interested in accessing racial diversity and found ways to relate to their heritage through birth family stories. Conclusion: The study highlights the difficulties children experience when attempting to integrate in a family from a different race to themselves. The findings suggest ways participants use their agency to make informed decisions to regain their cultural identity whilst in care and as care leavers.

The aim of this thesis is to examine how voters make sense of their political choices, comparing established versus newly-formed political groups, to understand more about the role of identity in political competitions. I examined the US Presidential Election of 2016 as an example of a longstanding political competition, and the European Union Referendum held in the UK as an example of newly created voting categorisations. I adopted a mixed methods design (surveys and focus groups) to compare the European Union Referendum and US Presidential Election political groups on perceptions of identity, activation of intergroup bias, positive distinctiveness, and identity integration. I found that perceptions of intergroup identification and intergroup bias were shown in both the UK - EU Referendum groups as well as the US Election but that these patterns were stronger in the more established US Election groups. Additionally, I found that identification and intergroup bias perceptions were active in both of the political events though stronger in the established groups than newly-formed. Further, the data provides evidence that the identity (motivations, values) of the group interacts with the establishment of the group to create variations in intergroup perceptions. The conclusion drawn is that political groups go through the process of identity establishment but that this affects their perceptions in different ways, depending upon their motivations, values, and group identity. The implication of this is that we gain a deeper understanding of what is differentiating political groups in the same competitions and what is similar across groups in different competitions.

Children and young people with neurodevelopmental disorders and people who have experienced childhood adversity commonly experience emotional outbursts, which have wide-ranging negative impacts on personal and family wellbeing. Historically, emotional outbursts have been considered as one example of a myriad of challenging behaviours caused by emotion dysregulation, but the specific relationship between such dysregulation and outbursts has received limited attention. The present thesis aimed to establish a transdiagnostic account of the aetiology of emotional outbursts, and to identify measures that might further support the development of this framework. Using a series of mixed-effects models, the capacity to index emotion regulation through performance metrics of a social decision-making game was examined through secondary analysis of data from typically developing children and young people. Furthermore, an informant-report questionnaire (the Emotional Outburst Questionnaire) was developed to transdiagnostically measure the characteristics of emotional outbursts in children and young people. This questionnaire was translated and adapted into a Brazilian-Portuguese version to extend the reach of the measure and to provide a cross-cultural comparison. Data from these two versions of the Emotional Outburst Questionnaire enabled the identification and verification of three distinct patterns of contexts associated with outbursts through cluster analysis. These patterns of contexts were theorised to correspond to different pathways to emotional outbursts, each relating to unique differences in emotion dysregulation. The perspectives of caregivers were analysed through a grounded theory approach to ascertain the aetiological mechanisms involved in each of the proposed pathways, in addition to the general mechanisms of outburst escalation and manifestation. Overall, the present thesis established an aetiological framework of emotional outbursts that could inform the development of pathway-specific intervention strategies for emotional outbursts.

The research comprising this thesis is based on an integrated framework that pulls from both Achievement Goal Theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1989) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) in considering relevant features of the motivational climate and their implications (Duda, 2013). Duda (2013, Duda & Appleton, 2016) conceptualises an 'empowering' motivational climate as one that is more task-involving, autonomy-supportive and socially-supportive. A 'disempowering' motivational climate is ego-involving and controlling. Numerous studies have assessed and examined the correlates of the perceived motivational teaching environment from AGT or SDT perspectives. This thesis (Chapter 1) describes how a measure of perceptions of the empowering and disempowering features of the motivational climate (i.e., the EDMCQ-PE) was adapted and validated in the context of secondary physical education (PE). Prior to this research, there has not been an assessment tool which measures the motivational environment created by PE teachers using Duda's integrated conceptualisation. In Chapter 3, the EDMCQ-PE is used to examine, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, the relationships between pupils' perceptions of the empowering and disempowering features of the motivational climate to their motivation and associated outcomes. It was found that a PE teacher created environment that was deemed to be more empowering predicted increases in enjoyment and concentration via autonomous motivation. Perceptions of disempowering motivational climates in PE corresponded to increases in boredom via controlled motivation. The next step was to intervene with the aim of optimising the motivational climate operating in secondary school PE. The Empowering PE™ training was delivered to members of a PE Department at one school. Aiming to address criticism and limitations of 'one-off' workshop deliveries, efforts were made to further develop and embed more empowering PE strategies over time via an extended intervention that incorporated principles of communities of practise (Chapter 4). Finally, Chapter 5 examined the impact of the school-based Empowering PE™ workshop and subsequent associated professional development programme using community of practice principles on 1) PE teachers' understanding of motivation and optimal and dysfunctional motivational strategies, and reported motivational strategies employed, (2) Senior Leadership Teams (SLT) perceptions of the PE teachers understanding, engagement and impact of the PDP, and (3) quality of pupils' motivation and indicators of engagement within physical education. The findings of the thesis suggest that in the future, the EMCQ-PE could be used by both teachers and researchers as a validated measure of the motivational climate manifested in PE. Future work on the further development of this assessment tool, however, was recommended. Results also indicate the importance of promoting more empowering PE environments and reducing disempowering teacher behaviours. Finally, findings suggest that the motivational climate in PE classes can be optimised via targeted training and also following up educational workshops with more continuous interaction and exchange between those who have received the training (as can be achieved via supporting a professional development programme using community of practice principles).

Background: Existing literature on women with anorexia points to romantic relationships with their partners as an important factor to examine, as relationships are thought to either contribute to the maintenance of the anorexia or to serve as one of the key factors that contributes to recovery. Control and power have emerged as key issues in the literature on anorexia and romantic relationships. The present study aims to understand how couples' sense-making of anorexia impacts on how they relate with each other and with the anorexia, and how this evolves over time. The study also aims to do this in the context of dominant discourses in society around eating disorders and relationships. Method: Five couples where a female partner has been diagnosed with anorexia were jointly and individually interviewed using an unstructured, narrative interview. Data were analysed using Foucauldian-informed Narrative Analysis (FNA). Results: Four narrative chapters arose from the data, namely, Gradual development of understanding of anorexia in the context of societal discourses around thinness, gender, and mental and physical health; Anorexia as the interplay between power and powerlessness; Navigating shifts in power and helplessness within the relationship; Resolution and rebalancing of power. Conclusion: The results highlight several implications for research and practice centering around the importance of acknowledging the powerlessness that underlies the need for control in an effort to combat shaming dominant discourses around anorexia and control.

Human sensory abilities are crucial for interaction with the environment. It is known that the way we perceive the world through our senses can be improved following training. Sensory training and motor behaviour have been widely investigated, however, the direct effect of an improved sensory ability on motor behaviour is not clearly understood. In the visual domain, it has been shown that visual perception is affected by the space in which the stimuli are presented, with a better performance when stimuli are near (peripersonal space) compared to far (extrapersonal space) from our body. In the tactile domain, it has been shown that tactile training is an effective procedure to improve spatial acuity, however, there is contrasting evidence regarding whether such improvement is affecting motor behaviour. The role of visual and tactile training and their effects in space and on motor behaviour are investigated through two lines of research. The first line of research investigated the effectiveness of visual training when stimuli are presented near compared to far from the body. Surprisingly, we found that, differently from what happens in visual perception, visual training is more effective in the far compared to the near space. We suggest that such an effect is possibly due to greater deployment of attention in the far space, which could make the learning more impactful and generalisable across spaces. The second line of research explored the effect of passive tactile training (Repetitive Somatosensory Stimulation) applied to a finger, on hand motor behaviour and corticospinal excitability. Results revealed that passive tactile training affects the performance in a tactile task and in turn, modulates motor behaviour. Overall, this research provides new insights regarding the efficacy of visual perceptual learning in space (peripersonal vs extrapersonal) and the potential role of tactile passive training in altering motor behaviour.

Forensic fingerprint examiners are awarded 'expert' status within courts of law and are presumed to have specialist knowledge and ability that would not be found within the general population, yet questions arise as to whether expertise in forensic fingerprint comparison is a scientifically valid and reliable process. To explore this assumption, a novel online fingerprint aptitude test was created (Chapter 2) to measure the abilities of untrained controls ('Novices'), fingerprint examiners-in-training ('Trainees'), and qualified fingerprint examiners ('Experts') in a variety of fingerprint tasks (Chapter 3). Analyses focussed on group and individual differences in performance. Accuracy in latent print comparison differentiated the abilities of these three groups, and Experts demonstrated a level of performance that scarcely any Novices were able to match. This thesis therefore proposes a cognitive theory of fingerprint comparison expertise that reflects superior performance by fingerprint examiners in the most challenging aspects of fingerprint comparison. In addition, this theory suggests that there should be a clear separation in the performance of fingerprint examiners and untrained observers, with any overlap in abilities not a marker of expertise. This theory of expertise was further expanded by the application of a battery of perceptual tasks, designed to reflect the varied cognitive components of fingerprint comparison (Chapter 4). This test battery data demonstrates that fingerprint expertise is underpinned by an ability in feature matching, and mental rotation with non-fingerprint stimuli, and a role for global processing during latent print comparison. Conversely, perceptual processes such as visual short-term memory and visual search did not demonstrate the same relationship with fingerprint identification. This thesis concludes with suggestions for future research and recommendations for incorporating these findings into police selection processes for fingerprint examiner recruitment.

Identities, particularly national identities, played a decisive role in the United Kingdom's European Union membership referendum of 2016 (Ashcroft and Bevir, 2016; Browne, 2017). In fact, Koegler, Malreddy and Tronicke (2020) argue that no recent political event has had as much influence on British narratives of national and transnational identities as Brexit. This thesis is the first to diachronically explore the role of discourses of British and European identities in the Brexit process across three data sets: pro-Brexit newspapers, UK government documents, and interviews with individual Leave and Remain voters. Using a unique combination of corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis and a discourse analysis of narratives, the thesis investigates how Britain and Europe are discursively constructed and positioned in relation to each other in the three data sets. It questions what national identity narratives for Britain are identified across the data sets, and what their democratic implications are. The analyses reveal that there is a complementary narrative of national division and decline that pervades the three data sets, which poses a threat to British identity at a time when the construction of a collective identity is likely to be paramount. The image of Brexit Britain that emerges is of a politically, socio-economically, geographically divided nation. This representation is not only a direct contradiction of the great global trading nation narrative that the Vote Leave campaigners - and later the UK Government - promised, but it is also at odds with what one might expect given the purposes of the institutional texts: to present an argument in favour of Brexit Britain. Ultimately, the findings suggest that the transition from pre- to post-Brexit Britain was a crucial period of destabilisation for institutional and lay national identity narratives. They also illustrate that the next few years are likely to be just as important: the UK is forging its post-Brexit place in the world amid declining levels of trust in politicians (Curtice and Montagu, 2020), increasing devolution anxiety in England (Henderson and Wyn Jones, 2021), and calls for a second Scottish independence referendum. The mid-2020s are likely to be a tumultuous time for Britain, and a stable national identity narrative which resonates with citizens will undoubtedly be important to political officials to fend off threats to the domestic Union and to attract international partners. The question will be if, and how, the UK can progress from a widespread narrative of national disunity and decline to one of unity and influence.

Post-traumatic stress disorder and other anxiety-related disorders are characterised by impaired extinction and symptom relapse. Preclinical research into fear and extinction learning provides a translatable model for clinical settings. The endocannabinoid system is involved in extinction learning. However, research regarding endocannabinoid metabolism inhibition in extinction impairment and fear relapse is lacking. Spontaneous fear recovery, the return of learned fear over time after successful extinction, models fear relapse. Immediate extinction following fear conditioning impairs later extinction recall. Male Lister Hooded rats underwent Pavlovian fear conditioning in paradigms of spontaneous fear recovery or immediate extinction. The endocannabinoid metabolism inhibitors, URB597 or JZL184 (which increase the levels of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, respectively) were administered intraperitoneally before or after extinction training depending on the paradigm. A positive control experiment used the b-adrenergic receptor antagonist, propranolol, in the immediate extinction paradigm. Neither URB597 nor JZL184 prevented fear relapse, nor did they rescue extinction impairments. A high dose of JZL184 acutely impaired immediate extinction acquisition. Propranolol acutely reduced baseline freezing prior to extinction training, facilitated immediate extinction acquisition, but did not rescue extinction impairment. These results suggest that endocannabinoid metabolism inhibition may not affect fear relapse and extinction impairment within the current paradigms. However, factors such as drug timing (e.g., when treatment occurred in relation to behavioural training or testing) and rat characteristics (e.g., strain, sex, and age) may have affected the results. Future research should address these potential confounds to assess the potential benefit of endocannabinoid metabolism inhibition in fear relapse and impaired extinction.

Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurodevelopmental, hyperkinetic disorder characterised by the enduring presence of both motor and phonic tics. Premonitory urge (PU) is thought to be a negative reinforcer of tic expression in TS. Tic expression during fMRI scanning is required as an overt marker of increased urge-to-tic, however this can lead to a loss of large amounts of data due to head movement. The first aim of this thesis was to validate a model free approach to investigate PU. In Chapter 3, I examined the urge-to-blink in healthy volunteers, an analogous behaviour that can be expressed overtly in the MRI scanner. The task involved alternating blocks of "Okay to blink" and "Suppress", during which participants continuously reported their subjective urge-to-blink. Subjective urge scores were found to be correlated with activity in the right posterior and ventral-anterior insula, mid-cingulate and occipital cortices. Blink suppression was associated with activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, right dorsal-anterior insula, mid-cingulate cortex and thalamus. Therefore, different regions within the right insula contribute to the urge-for-action and suppression networks. In Chapter 4, I reanalysed the same data using a paradigm free mapping approach, which identified activation within the insula and cingulate areas without prior specification of task timing. The second part of this thesis explored the modulatory effects of rhythmic median nerve stimulation (MNS), a non-invasive stimulation method which has shown potential for reducing tics and urges in TS. In Chapter 5, using MEG I investigated whether rhythmic MNS could be used to entrain oscillations at frequencies associated with sensorimotor inhibition. I demonstrated a frequency specific increase in both amplitude and intertrial phase coherence in the contralateral sensorimotor cortex during rhythmic but not arrhythmic stimulation. I used linear modelling of a template sensory evoked potential (SEP) and empirical mode decomposition to show that these effects were due to entrainment and not purely steady-state SEPs. In Chapter 6, I investigated the effects of MNS on neuro-metabolite concentrations in the contralateral sensorimotor cortex using magnetic resonance spectroscopy. I demonstrated an initial increase in glutamate compared to baseline during rhythmic but not arrhythmic stimulation but no difference in the difference-from-baseline measures between the two stimulation conditions. These results suggest that despite entrainment of oscillations during rhythmic MNS, there aren't large difference in the tonic neuromodulatory effects of rhythmic and arrhythmic stimulation.

Memory is important in our everyday lives and impairment due to acquired brain injury such as stroke or decline with aging can result in difficulties completing daily activities. It is therefore important to understand how memory is assessed and treated and to explore methods to improve ability. In this thesis, I examined how subjective memory ability is evaluated, clinical practices regarding memory after stroke, current approaches to memory rehabilitation, and the efficacy of mnemonic strategies for adults across all ages. A review of subjective memory measures (Chapter 2) revealed a wide range of standardised metamemory questionnaires that can be used in clinical and research settings to examine self-efficacy, complaints, and multiple dimensions of metamemory. However, a survey of healthcare professionals (Chapter 3) demonstrated that memory after stroke is often assessed in clinical settings with non-standardised subjective measures (e.g., patient interviews) in addition to cognitive screens. Additionally, rehabilitation frequently involves the use of various external memory aids and strategies to compensate for deficits. Similarly, a review of memory rehabilitation approaches currently in use (Chapter 4) revealed numerous strategies across the restoration, knowledge-acquisition, compensatory, and holistic approaches that are often combined to form rehabilitation programmes in research settings. An empirical study with young adults (Chapter 5), demonstrated limited efficacy of a commonly used face-name mnemonic strategy to improve name recall, but better outcomes with a simplified version of the mnemonic. In contrast, a study examining the efficacy of the simplified mnemonic across middle-aged and older adults (Chapter 6) revealed no influence of age or mnemonic instruction on name recall. These outcomes have highlighted important considerations for evaluating memory, revealed the various methods available for researchers and clinicians to treat memory impairment, and demonstrated that mnemonic strategies might have limited efficacy for healthy adults across all age groups.

Tasks are increasingly becoming cognitively based instead of physically based, and managing multiple tasks at once is becoming commonplace. Tools that help people to manage their cognitive activity in their lives could therefore be highly valuable. Unlike physical activity trackers, however, it is not yet understood how cognitive activity could be tracked in daily life in order to provide people with meaningful reflections and useful goals, known as personal informatics. Mental workload is a promising concept in this respect, due to its performance defining qualities and evergrowing relevance. Thus, this thesis investigates mental workload tracking in everyday life. Mental workload has typically been investigated from an isolated taskbased, 'work'load perspective, predominantly in safety-critical environments, meaning that our understanding of how mental workload functions in daily life is limited. By adopting a novel longitudinal, holistic, and personcentred perspective, the research presented in this thesis aimed to improve understanding of 1) physiological mental workload measurements in realworld environments, 2) how mental workload could be useful as a form of personal informatics and mental workload as a concept itself, 3) how mental workload data can be meaningfully communicated to users, and 4) ethical considerations for tracking devices. Two empirical studies were conducted in relation to this. Firstly, a naturalistic laboratory study used brain imaging methods to physiologically measure mental workload levels for general work tasks. Officeworker participants completed personalised reading and writing tasks at different levels of difficulty. Verbal interruptions were incorporated and coffee drinking was largely unrestricted. Results found that the measure was sensitive to reading tasks but not writing tasks, which helped to identify challenges for real-world mental workload tracking in terms of maximising the sensitivity of the measures. Interruptions were also found to affect mental workload levels, and these findings were interpreted using mental workload models. Study 2 had a quantitative and qualitative phase. It explored mental workload as as a concept and as a form of personal informatics. The quantitative phase involved participants subjectively tracking their mental workload levels at regular intervals; questionnaires related to wellbeing were also completed each evening. The qualitative phase interviewed the same participants in depth about their experiences and perceptions of mental workload and mental workload tracking devices. From this research, an apparent Mental Workload Cycle was developed, where participants aimed to fluctuate between low, medium, and high mental workload levels. This was because each level serves a purpose but sustaining any level for too long results in negative consequences. Factors were identified that could disrupt the Cycle, and indeed our quantitative data indicated that actual behaviour often did not align with qualitative preferences. Qualitative insights also investigated the design of mental workload tracking technology in terms of design and ethical considerations. Design considerations related to metaphors, colours, shapes, and descriptors. Ethical concerns related to data privacy, validity, misinterpretation, and personal identity. The important questions for cognitive activity tracking and understanding mental workload in everyday life are human-computer interaction ones. These relate to, for example, what useful data consumer neurotechnology could be used to track, what goals we could set for healthy lives, and how personal cognitive informatics will relate to the pervasive way we use physical activity tracking. Towards understanding this future, this thesis makes four contributions. First, we identify challenges for physiologically measuring mental workload in uncontrolled environments. Second, we develop the Mental Workload Cycle, a model that progresses understanding of 1) how mental workload can be used for personal informatics, and 2) mental workload as a concept in terms of the factors that contribute of the states of overload and underload. Third, we produced design recommendations for communicating mental workload data. And fourth, we explicated ethical concerns for future consumer neurotechnology. These findings should be used to progress personal informatics and human factors research, and implicate the direction of consumer neurotechnology as it develops towards longitudinal tracking of cognitive activity.

A cornerstone of adaptive behaviour is the capacity to learn from errors. Past research has made significant progress to understand the cognitive and neural mechanisms that underlie this form of adaptive behaviour. However, there is still more to learn concerning the performance monitoring mechanisms that sustain the adaptive responses over long periods of time. To advance our understanding in this area, I investigated the impact of errors on learning, memory, and response adjustments using behavioural and neuroimaging methods. This thesis presents evidence showing that learning from errors can be more challenging than learning from positive outcomes. However, it also reveals that highly surprising errors can enhance episodic memory. Furthermore, neuroimaging findings showed that memory enhancement is associated with changes in the activity of in a network of brain regions associated with error detection and processing. Finally, this thesis examined the functional role of increases in response latencies after typing errors and evaluated their contribution to response adaptations i typing. Overall, these investigations provide key insights into the cognitive and neural mechanisms that underlie learning from errors.

To interact with the physical world, the brain must integrate information across multiple sensory and motor domains to create a stable representation of the body. Crucially, it is the effective integration of visual, tactile, proprioceptive, and motor information which creates the experience of a bodily self. The embodied cognition framework proposes that important social processes such as self-awareness, perspective-taking, and interpersonal synchrony are grounded within the bodily self. Thus, exploring the links between the senses, the body, and social processes can elucidate how humans interact, understand each other, and move in time with each other. Research investigating why certain populations show differences in how they socially interact can shed further light on the contribution of sensorimotor integration in social processing. Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by differences in social interaction, communication, and sensory processing. Research suggests that sensory processing differences may account for the characteristic differences in social behaviour in autism. However, the exact relationship between sensorimotor integration and social processing is not fully understood. This thesis aimed to investigate the relationship between sensorimotor integration and social processing in autistic and non-autistic individuals. Chapter 2 found evidence to suggest that an internal representation of the body, built upon multisensory integration may be implicated in self-referential processing in non-autistic adults. Chapter 3 found evidence that whilst autistic adults exhibit self-referential processing it may not be related to sensorimotor integration and the body schema. These findings suggest that whilst non-autistic self-conceptualisation is intertwined with body representations, autistic self-conceptualisation may not. Chapter 4 found that altering the experience of self-location did not impact visual perspective-taking performance in non-autistic adults. Moreover, visuo-proprioceptive-motor integration was not found to relate to the ability to take another person's perspective. This finding elucidates the role of sensorimotor integration and internal representations of the body in visual perspective-taking. Chapter 5 found that sensorimotor and joint action processes facilitate interpersonal synchrony and subsequent social bonding in typically developing children and adults. Importantly, these findings suggest that sensorimotor processes are key for developing the ability to move in time with another person and benefit from subsequent social bonding. Chapter 6 found that autistic adults experience sensory fluctuations across multiple modalities and that these sensory differences have a significant impact on their daily lives, including social well-being. Together, the present thesis evidences the intertwined relationship between internal representations of the body, sensorimotor integration, and how we understand and interact with others. Importantly, it also demonstrates the crucial roles of multisensory experience, and body representation, in the mental, physical, and social well-being of autistic adults.

The Stroop task has been used to investigate automatic lexical processing and attentional control. Unlike tasks that involve explicit reading (i.e. the lexical decision task), the Stroop task asks for the names of the ink colours, making the word reading task irrelevant. This thesis investigates the Stroop phenomenon by using Chinese characters and pinyin, and how semantic and phonological information provided by Chinese characters and pinyin can be activated in the Stroop task. In Chapter 3, three Stroop experiments are presented that investigated the role of sublexical components (i.e. phonetic radicals) in Chinese characters. When the meaning of the target character is irrelevant to the colour words, its phonetic radical, which is a colour word, can still elicit strong Stroop interference and facilitation effects. This suggests the semantic activation of sublexical components in Chinese characters. Additionally, the phonological cues provided by sublexical components can also be activated in the Stroop task. Chapter 4 Presents a Stroop experiment that explored the decomposed components in Stroop effects. Previous research focussing on multi-stage accounts of Stroop effects confirmed the contribution of response, semantic, and task conflicts. This study provides evidence for the impact of phonological conflicts/facilitation in Stroop effects by using Chinese homophones. A series of Stroop experiments are presented in Chapter 5 that looked at the impact of using Chinese characters written in pinyin, a Romanization transcription of Chinese characters. The results showed that Chinese characters written in pinyin can activate semantic and phonological information of target characters. The mixed presentation of Chinese characters and pinyin in the final experiment suggested that those two scripts can impact each other's performance in Stroop interference and facilitation effects. The results of this thesis provide new interpretations of the Stroop phenomenon that it can be decomposed into distinct components, including phonological components. In turn, the Stroop task enables the investigation of the automaticity in reading Chinese words, suggesting the role of phonology in the activation of semantics.

Numerous studies have outlined the impact of maltreatment on child health and wellbeing outcomes. Often children who have experienced maltreatment encounter safeguarding services, including social work and the legal system who take appropriate action to prevent further harm. Child protection proceedings govern all aspects of children's lives while proceedings are ongoing. This study aims to understand the impact of the English legal system on infant (under five years) mental health. A reflexive Thematic Analysis (TA) was conducted with interviews and focus groups carried out with 14 professionals involved in child safeguarding services in London, England. Four themes (decision-making; competing professional roles; financial considerations and service issues; and timescales) and a fifth overarching theme (best interests of the child) were generated. The rights of the parent and the child are key considerations when enacting legislation and often these conflict with what would be in the "best interests of the child". The best interests of the child are universally acknowledged, however, the interpretation of this varies considerably. The paramount role of the legal system is safeguarding the child and preventing further significant harm and balancing this with the risk of further exposure to maltreatment and the trauma of removal from biological families, whilst also ensuring fundamental human rights are upheld complicate decision-making. Current legislation and future policy would benefit from identifying and defining how best to support the needs of these children with a focus on children's rights.

Background: Up to 17% of children and young people (C/YP) in the UK are estimated to experience mental health difficulties (NHS Digital, 2020). For most adults experiencing mental health difficulties, onset began in childhood, highlighting the importance of timely access to effective treatment options (Kessler et al., 2005). Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy (EMDR) was initially developed for the treatment of PTSD (Shapiro, 2002), but it is now used for a range of mental health issues (Valiente-Gómez et al., 2017). At present, the efficacy of this approach with C/YP is promising (Barron, 2018), but limited research has been conducted to understand how C/YP experience EMDR. Aims: The current study aimed to explore the lived experiences of C/YP who have accessed EMDR in a Child and Adolescent Mental Health service (CAMHS) setting. Specifically, it aims to develop a richer understanding of the elements which C/YP perceive as most impactful, which may inform clinician's approach and delivery. Method: Four participants were recruited for this study. Informed consent was obtained prior to conducting semi-structured interviews, which were transcribed and analysed in line with the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach. Results: Four group experiential themes were formed from the 13 group-level sub-themes which emerged from the participants' accounts. These were the importance of the clinician's role, reflections on engaging with the initial phases of the EMDR process, meeting individual needs and the beneficial aspects of EMDR. Conclusion: This study offers insight into the perspective of C/YP who have benefitted from engaging with EMDR within a CAMHS setting. The findings indicate the value C/YP place on the therapeutic relationship, the importance of offering choice and flexibility to ensure individual needs are met, that the perceived benefits take different forms and that steps should be taken during the initial phases to clarify the importance of preparation and to support C/YP to navigate the perceived peculiarity of the approach. Clinical implications and service delivery considerations are outlined. Further research exploring the full range of experiences across larger samples and different populations is recommended.

Social anxiety is a prevalent mental health concern and its adverse effects impact quality of life. Exposure Therapy is a key component of prominent psychotherapies for social anxiety, but adherence can be challenging and an intervention improving retention and accessibility would be valuable. Vibrotactile stimulation is a potential intervention for in vivo exposure as it can discreetly augment other objects or wearable devices during a social situation without interrupting conversation. This thesis explored the development of a calming vibrotactile intervention for social anxiety exposure therapy, prioritising the experiences of socially anxious users to inform the design and display of novel stimuli. As vibrotactile stimuli have a narrow affective range, novel emotionally resonant stimuli, which evoke real world sensations to elicit an associated emotional response (e.g. stimuli that evoke cat purring to remind users of past animal touch), were studied as an avenue to deliver calming experiences. Five studies and two surveys were conducted. Results from the first two experiments showed emotional responses to stimuli varied between participants, depending individual associations with real-world phenomena. Along with two surveys, this informed the investigation of the specific requirements and affective haptic preferences of socially anxious users. User suggestions and affective preferences from these surveys informed the testing of a wider selection of emotionally resonant cues in the third experiment, trialed alongside warm and cool thermal cues to observe impact on emotional resonance and response, although the effects were too minor to justify their future use. With a library of emotionally resonant stimuli validated, methods of delivering them to users was explored with participatory prototyping. Participants who reported high levels of social anxiety designed personalised comfort objects, then augmented them with stimuli. These designs informed the design of three prototype objects which were augmented with vibrations in a final between-groups study which assessed if they could reduce anxiety during a social exposure task. Participants in the treatment group held their choice of object and stimulus to during exposure and exhibited significantly more varied anxiety responses to the task than a control group, reporting that their objects were calming and helpful. These findings suggest that emotionally resonant vibrotactile cues can act as a calming intervention, but their efficacy requires personalisation and varies strongly per user. This thesis contributes novel understanding of the specific requirements of socially anxious users when interacting with affective haptics and pioneers a new category of calming vibrotactile stimuli, with demonstrable applicability in socially anxious settings.

Across 3 pre-registered projects, we analysed the relationship between food representations and dietary behaviour to better understand why shifting towards sustainable diets is so difficult. Specifically, we investigated how polarised omnivores and vegans cognitively represent and publicly present meat and plant-based foods. For each project, food descriptions were coded according to whether they contained features about consuming and enjoying food (e.g. 'rich', 'indulgent', 'treat'), or to aspects independent of the consumption situation (e.g. 'healthy', 'protein', 'eco-friendly'). In Project 1 (NStudy1 = 852; NStudy2 = 3104), Instagram posts about meat foods were described in hashtags with more rewarding consumption language than posts about plant-based foods, which were instead described with more situation independent language - especially identity-focused discourse (e.g. 'vegan community'). In Project 2 (NExp. 1 = 220; NExp. 2 = 843), participants described ingroup foods (meat dishes for omnivores; plant-based dishes for vegans) with more rewarding consumption features than outgroup foods (plant-based dishes for omnivores; meat dishes for vegans). In contrast, omnivores used more situation independent features for outgroup foods, and vegans more social and political context language (e.g. 'animal abuse'). In Project 3 (NExp. 1 = 82; NExp. 2 = 913), when trying to make a plant-based dish appealing to omnivores in a hypothetical social media setting, participants used more rewarding consumption language than when appealing to vegans. Despite people thinking about in-group foods in terms of rewarding consumption, plant-based foods are not publicly described in this way, even by vegans. As reward expectations drive food choices, this typical presentation of plant-based foods can hinder mainstream consumer transitions towards sustainable food choices and strengthen dietary group polarisation.

Background: Suicide and self-harm are major public health concerns and these behaviours have been linked to exposure to Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). We selected different factors from The Integrated Motivational Volitional (IMV) model of suicidal behaviour to try to identify the mechanisms and conditions associated with this relationship. Objective: The relationship between ACEs and self-harm was investigated by examining differences between groups (ACEs 0-3 and 4+), associations between ACEs and psychological variables, and finally by exploring the mechanisms and conditions that could explain this relationship. Participants and Setting: This is a secondary data analysis using data from Cleare et al. (2018). The study consisted of 190 participants who were admitted to two hospitals in Glasgow following an episode of self-harm and who completed psychosocial measures. Methods: Univariate binary logistic regression, correlations, mediation and moderation analyses were used to explore the study aims. Results: Correlation analysis showed that ACEs were significantly associated with all psychological variables except for life events. Adjusted (gender and intent to die) mediation analyses and moderation analyses were undertaken. No results yielded statistical significance. Conclusion: ACEs have a widespread impact on people's lives. The factors tested in this study cannot account for the mechanisms or conditions underpinning the association between ACEs and selfharm. Additional research is necessary to understand the association between ACEs and self-harm.

Background: Prenatal ultrasound screening is a routine aspect of antenatal care for women in the UK, typically at 12 weeks of gestation to confirm pregnancy and at 20 weeks to screen for foetal abnormalities. The diagnosis of foetal abnormality is likely to be an emotional and stressful time for a woman and her family; however, the impact on maternal mental health in the short-term has not been systematically evaluated. This systematic review aimed to assess the mental health consequences of diagnosis of foetal abnormalities by routine ultrasound screening for women in the perinatal period. Methods: A systematic review of six electronic databases (Embase, Medline, PsycInfo, CINAHL, Scopus, and Web of Science) was conducted to identify relevant studies published before April 2023. A narrative synthesis of findings was produced. Included studies were those using standardised measures to assess maternal mental health following prenatal diagnosis of foetal abnormality. Results: A total of 3221 studies were screened and 13 met inclusion criteria (eight prospective observational and five cross-sectional studies). A narrative synthesis of findings was presented according to three main mental health outcome domains identified: anxiety, depression, and traumatic stress. Women with recent diagnoses of foetal abnormality on average had anxiety reaching clinical threshold for concern, significantly higher than normal controls. Depression symptoms were, on average, higher than those with normal ultrasound findings. Approximately one third of those surveyed demonstrated traumatic stress above threshold for clinical concern. Risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Tool for Quasi-Experimental Studies. Conclusions: Prenatal diagnosis of foetal abnormality appears to be associated with poor mental health, and increased risk of anxiety, depression, and traumatic stress symptoms for women during pregnancy. Studies in this area are limited by the lack of assessment of mental health prior to diagnosis. It is recommended that clinicians providing ultrasound screening and prenatal diagnoses should consider the psychological needs of women during this process. Sources of support should be considered to minimise the potential impact of these risks on obstetric and child development outcomes. Background: Congenital pulmonary airway malformation (CPAM) is a term used to describe a range of foetal abnormalities of the lung typically identified during routine antenatal ultrasound screening at 20 weeks' gestation. Babies are typically born without symptoms and as such there is uncertainty about the best course of treatment: to operate, or to watch and wait. This uncertainty can have psychological consequences for the parents receiving such a diagnosis. This study aims to explore the experience of parents who have been involved in decision making about their infant's care following diagnosis of CPAM in the context of uncertainty about treatment. Methods: This study used a qualitative approach in which four participants participated in a semi-structured interview about their experiences. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were then analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to generate group experiential themes. Results: Four group experiential themes were developed across the four interviews conducted: diagnosis changed the expected course of pregnancy; searching for information about the condition; making decisions about surgery; and life after decision making. Eleven subthemes were identified and are discussed. Conclusions: The findings of this study provide an insight into the experiences of parents who received a diagnosis of CPAM during routine antenatal screening. Participants highlighted the changes to the course of pregnancy, the importance of finding out more information about the condition, the process of making decisions about surgery, and the impact this continued to have on their lives in the present day. Recommendations are made for clinicians when providing similar diagnoses, particularly with regards to families' informational needs. Possible future research directions are also discussed.

Interpersonal communication behaviors play a significant role in maintaining emotional well being. Self-disclosure is one such behavior that can have a meaningful impact on our emotional state. When we engage in self-disclosure, we can receive and provide support, improve our mood, and regulate our emotions. It also creates a comfortable space to share our feelings and emotions, which can have a positive impact on our overall mental and physical health. Social robots are gradually being introduced in a range of social and health settings. These autonomous machines can take on various forms and shapes and interact with humans using social behaviors and rules. They are being studied and introduced in psychosocial health interventions, including mental health and rehabilitation settings, to provide much- needed physical and social support to individuals. In my doctoral thesis, I aimed to explore how humans self-disclose and express their emotions to social robots and how this behavior can affect our perception of these agents. By studying speech-based communication interactions between humans and social robots, I wanted to investigate how social robots can support human emotional well-being. While social robots show great promise in offering social support, there are still many questions to consider before deploying them in actual care contexts. It is important to carefully evaluate their utility and scope in interpersonal communication settings, especially since social robots do not yet offer the same opportunities as humans for social interactions. My dissertation consists of three empirical chapters that investigate the underlying psychological mechanisms of perception and behaviour within human-robot communication and their potential deployment as interventions for emotional wellbeing. Chapter 1 offers a comprehensive introduction to the topic of emotional well-being and self-disclosure from a psychological perspective. I begin by providing an overview of the existing literature and theory in this field. Next, I delve into the social perception of social robots, presenting a theoretical framework to help readers understand how people view these machines. To illustrate this, I review some of the latest studies on social robots in care settings, as well as those exploring how robots can encourage people to self-disclose more about themselves. Finally, I explore the key concepts of self disclosure, including how it is defined, operationalized, and measured in experimental psychology and human-robot interaction research. In my first empirical chapter, Chapter 2, I explore how a social robot's embodiment influences people's disclosures in measurable terms, and how these disclosures differ from disclosures made to humans and disembodied agents. Chapter 3 studies how prolonged and intensive long-term interactions with a social robot affect people's self-disclosure behavior towards the robot, perceptions of the robot, and how it affected factors related to well-being. Additionally, I examine the role of the interaction's discussion theme. In Chapter 4, the final empirical chapter, I test a long-term and intensive social robot intervention with informal caregivers, people living with considerably difficult life situations. I investigate the potential of employing a social robot for eliciting self-disclosure among informal caregivers over time, supporting their emotional well-being, and implicitly encouraging them to adapt emotion regulation skills. In the final discussion chapter, Chapter 5, I summarise the current findings and discuss the contributions, implications and limitations of my work. I reflect on the contribution and challenges of this research approach and provide some future directions for researchers in the relevant fields. The results of these studies provide meaningful evidence for user experience, acceptance, and trust of social robots in different settings, including care, and demonstrate the unique psychological nature of these dynamic social interactions with social robots. Overall, this thesis contributes to the development of social robots that can support emotional well-being through self-disclosure interactions and provide insights into how social robots can be used as mental health interventions for individuals coping with emotional distress.

Obtaining a greater understanding of the meanings and motivations for the consumption of drugs is an important part of targeting drug-prevention and harm reduction strategies, particularly when considering why people continue to use drugs after initial experimentation, or where there may be a high probability of harm. By exploring the concept of identity in people who use drugs (PWUD) and how this affects their substance-related decision making, it may be possible to broaden understandings of use and develop more relevant and responsive interventions. This programme of PhD research explored the development and expression of drug-related identity in young adults, and sought to understand how drug use and the associated lifestyles and practices featured as part of a young adult's general identity. The research investigated how PWUD negotiate potential problems and risks associated with drug-identity related behaviour, and explored belongingness and capital in the formation and expression of identities. The design was multi-phase and used mixed methods. In the first phase, participants completed an online survey. Multivariate statistical analyses were used to identify three latent profiles of PWUD who differed on their responses to key questions concerning identity and drug use, specifically, drug-related cultural capital, differentiated normalisation to recreational drug use, and belongingness to a drug culture. The largest class consisted of those with a 'salient drug user identity', while belonging to the other two classes indicated either a 'moderate' or 'non-salient' drug user identity. For the next phase of research, purposeful sampling techniques were used to recruit young adults who use drugs for individual interviews. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to examine the concept of 'drug user identity' in more detail. Findings generated three overarching themes, which present a framework for understanding how drug use and the associated lifestyles and practices feature as part of the identities of PWUD, and developed a concept of 'drug user identity', that is established, maintained, and negotiated within a broader sense of self. The project offers novel insights for understanding belongingness and capital between PWUD that can help inform targeted harm reduction strategies for different profiles of PWUD, without reinforcing stigma associated with drug use, or further marginalising other groups of people who use drugs; these include approaches to drug use in higher education settings and harm reduction approaches that consider the gendered use of recreational drugs.

Previous research has shown that believing emotions are malleable is positively linked to the emotion regulation strategy cognitive reappraisal, and to improvements in facets of wellbeing. However, less is known about how anxiety and happiness malleability beliefs, or beliefs about the malleability of one's own emotions, relate to cognitive reappraisal and wellbeing. Moreover, most studies do not allow for inferences about the directionality of relations between these constructs over time. There have also been no investigations which have examined how emotion malleability beliefs and cognitive reappraisal are linked to school-related wellbeing; and most studies have yet to compare beliefs about the malleability of one's own emotions with beliefs about the malleability of other people's emotions, to identify which has the stronger relations with wellbeing. To address gaps in the current literature, this doctoral thesis examined relations between beliefs about the malleability of one's own emotions (considering emotion beliefs in general, happiness malleability beliefs, and anxiety malleability beliefs), cognitive reappraisal and school-related wellbeing over a 12-month period across two school years. Data were collected in November 2018, May 2019, and November 2019. Findings were extended to identify whether beliefs about the malleability of one's own anxiety and happiness had stronger relations with wellbeing than beliefs about the malleability of other people's anxiety and happiness. Participants were 2,365 secondary school and 6th form college students in England (aged 11-19 years). Three latent cross-lagged panel models (CLPMs) examined the directional ordering of emotion malleability beliefs, cognitive reappraisal and wellbeing over time. Findings showed that school-related wellbeing was reciprocally related to cognitive reappraisal. In addition, believing one's own anxiety was malleable positively predicted school-related wellbeing. School-related wellbeing positively predicted beliefs in the malleability of one's own happiness, and believing one's own happiness was malleable positively predicted cognitive reappraisal. However, all three significant malleability belief relations were only evident across the first two waves. General emotion malleability beliefs were not related to cognitive reappraisal or school-related wellbeing. Further analyses showed that beliefs about the malleability of one's own anxiety and beliefs about the malleability of other people's anxiety had the same equivalent power in predicting school-related wellbeing. School-related wellbeing did not predict beliefs about the malleability of other people's happiness. Findings may inform the design of interventional research in schools and colleges by highlighting the importance of cognitive reappraisal, and anxiety and happiness malleability beliefs in the school-related wellbeing of young people. School leaders and educators may also consider developing instructional practices which promote the use of cognitive reappraisal in the classroom, and consider adopting a whole-school growth mindset approach to promote malleability beliefs and improve wellbeing.