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Disruptive behavior disorders and social skills were assessed in 187 youth aged 13 years, with typical cognitive development (TD n = 98), intellectual disability (ID n = 37), autism spectrum disorder (ASD, IQ > = 85, n = 26), or Autism Spectrum Disorder with ID (ASD/ID; IQ

Social skills are traditionally viewed as acquired through social environments including parenting. However, biopsychosocial models highlight the importance of genetic influences and gene-environment interactions (G×Es) in child development. Extant G×E investigations often fail to account for developmental changes in the phenotype or rigorously assess the social environment using observational measures. The present study prospectively assessed 110 children (44.5% female) and their parents to explore biologically plausible independent and interactive associations of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and observed positive and negative parenting in prediction of (a) initial levels of social skills at school entry (age 6 years) and (b) developmental changes in social skills across the early school years (ages 6-9 years). Overall, the SS (vs. SL/LL) 5-HTTLPR genotype inversely predicted social skills across all domains, although parenting behavior moderated these associations wherein putative G×E effects differed by developmental timing and social skills domain. Positive parenting positively predicted concurrent (age 6) overall social skills for children with SL/LL genotypes, but not the SS genotype. However, for the SS group only, age 6 positive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social responsibility, although negative parenting positively predicted growth in social cooperation. Findings suggest that 5-HTTLPR may signal differential sensitivities to parenting styles and patterns of social development, which may help to inform targeted intervention approaches to enhance person-environment fit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS:We aimed to determine whether a second-order global competence latent factor could be identified as underlying relations between adolescent mental health, social skills, and academic functioning. A secondary aim was to test whether early childhood characteristics predict adolescent global competence. A final aim was to test differences in these models across youth with typical cognitive development (TD) or intellectual disability (ID). METHODS AND PROCEDURES:Participants were 246 youth with TD (n = 148) or ID (n = 98), with assessments from early childhood (3, 4, 5 years) and adolescence (13, 15). These youths' parents and teachers provided measures. A Multiple Indicator, Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was tested using structural equation modeling, in which parenting, maternal depression, and emotional dysregulation in early childhood were entered as predictors of adolescent global competence. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS:A second-order global competence factor emerged, and was predicted by early childhood variables. The final MIMIC model demonstrated excellent fit. Negative parenting in early childhood predicted lower adolescent global competence for both TD and ID youth. Maternal depression predicted adolescent global competence only for youth with ID, while emotion dysregulation predicted only for youth with TD. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS:Results have implications for longitudinal mechanisms of influence and early intervention targets for specific populations.

Disruptive behavior disorders were assessed in 160 youth aged 13 years, with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n = 48), intellectual disability (ID, n = 28), or typical development (TD, n = 84). Mothers' reported collateral effects on their psychological adjustment were related to both youth disability status and clinical level behavior disorders. More youth with ASD or ID had clinical level behavior disorders than their TD peers, and their mothers reported significantly higher personal stress and psychological symptoms, as well as lower positive impact of the youth on the family. The youth's clinical level behavior disorders accounted for these differences more than the diagnostic status. Mothers high in dispositional optimism reported the lowest stress and psychological symptoms in relationship to youth behavior challenges.

Although parenting behavior and friendship quality predict adolescent externalizing behaviors (EBs), individual differences in temperament may differentially affect susceptibility to these factors over time. In a multi-method and multi-informant study of 141 children followed prospectively from toddlerhood to adolescence, we tested the independent and interactive associations of age 3 reactive temperament (e.g., negative emotionality) and age 13 observed parenting (i.e., positive and negative behavior) and friendship (i.e., conflict and warmth), with multi-informant ratings of age 15 aggression and rule-breaking behavior. Negative parenting predicted growth in parent-rated EB, but only for adolescents with early reactive temperament. Temperament did not affect sensitivity to positive parenting or friendship. Results are discussed in the context of differential susceptibility theory and intervention implications for adolescents.

Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3-6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent-child interactions. To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.

Background: Teenage youth with co-morbid intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) could be at higher risk for behavioral and social difficulties than youth with ID only. Methods: Youth aged 13 years were diagnosed with ID (n = 37), ID/ASD (n = 26), or typical development (TD, n = 98). Mothers and teachers completed measures of youth behavior problems, mental health, social skills, friendships, and their own well-being. Results: ID/ASD youth were at heightened risk across almost all measures when compared with TD youth. On 14 of the 38 domains assessed, ID/ASD youth had significantly more difficulties than youth with ID only. Most notably, they scored higher on internalizing problems and lower on friendships and peer acceptance. Their mothers reported lower well-being for themselves. Conclusion: Compared to families of youth with ID only, youth with combined ID/ASD experienced greater psychological and social difficulties and their mothers experienced lower-well-being.

Background: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) appears more prevalent among children with intellectual disabilities (ID) as compared to children with typical development. However, it remains unclear what drives this difference. Methods: Data from 70 youth with typical development (TD) and 20 youth with ID were drawn from (The Collaborative Family Study). The relationships between child temperament and parent psychopathology (age 3), parenting behavior and child behavior problems (age 5), and ODD diagnosis (age 13) were explored via structural equation modeling. The predicted model was examined in the total sample, among children with and without ID separately, and with status (TD vs. ID) as a predictor. Conclusion: Many of the predicted relationships hold true for youth with and without ID. However, we found an unexpected relationship between negative-controlling parenting and child externalizing behavior problems for children with ID. The positive role of parental intrusiveness for children with ID is discussed, although limitations are noted due to the small sample size and preliminary nature of this study.

Disruptive behavior disorders and social skills were assessed in 187 youth aged 13 years, with typical cognitive development (TD n = 98), intellectual disability (ID n = 37), autism spectrum disorder (ASD, IQ > = 85, n = 26), or Autism Spectrum Disorder with ID (ASD/ID; IQ < 85, n = 26). The primary question was whether youth with ASD and co-morbid ID had greater associated adjustment problems than youth with ASD-only. Youth with ASD, with or without ID, had significantly higher behavior problems and lower social skills than their TD peers. However, youth with ASD and co-morbid ID did not differ from youth with ASD-only on any variable assessed, including behavior problems, behavior disorders, social acceptance, social skills, and student teacher relationships.

Introduction: We examined the development of anxiety in youth with or without intellectual disabilities (ID). We also examined the effects of child delay status, temperament, ethnicity, and negative parenting on anxiety symptom trajectory. Method: Participants were 177 families in (blinded). We employed latent growth curve modeling to examine the trajectory of anxiety symptoms (ages 3-13 years) and to examine the individual and interactive effects of variables in predicting age 3 anxiety and change in anxiety. Results: Anxiety symptoms increased over time. Children with ID demonstrated higher levels of anxiety compared to typically developing (TD) children. Social fearfulness was positively associated with anxiety at age 3. Anxiety increased at a slower rate in Latino children. Negative parenting positively predicted rate of change in anxiety for children with ID but not TD children. Conclusions: These findings inform early intervention targets for culturally diverse families of children with or without ID.

Introduction: Youth with intellectual disabilities (ID) demonstrate higher rates of disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) than youth with typical development (TD). DBDs such as oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) predict higher rates of delinquency during adolescence. Yet, few studies have examined risk-taking and delinquency among youth with ID. Methods: We used a self-report measure to determine whether 13-year-old youth with ID (n = 23) reported higher rates of risk-taking and delinquent behavior than their TD peers (n = 77). We also examined whether or not youth had a previous diagnosis of ODD. Results: Our results suggest that youth with ID reported fewer rule-breaking and risk-taking behaviors than their TD peers. In contrast, youth with a previous diagnosis of ODD reported more of these behaviors. Conclusion: Our results appear discrepant from previous studies, which find higher rates of risk-taking and delinquency among youth with ID. As such, we discuss the factors that may explain our discrepant results, including our definition and assessment of ID, and the age of our participants.

Although gene × environment interactions contribute to youth attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, the pathways mediating these influences are unknown. We tested genetic moderation of indirect effects from parenting behavior to youth ADHD symptoms through multiple neurocognitive factors. Two hundred and twenty-nine youth with and without ADHD were assessed at baseline (Wave 1; ages 5-10) and at a 2-year follow-up (Wave 2; ages 7-13). At Wave 1, youth completed a neurocognitive battery including measures of response inhibition, visuospatial working memory, and fluid reasoning, and a standardized parent-child interaction task yielding observational measures of positive and negative parenting. At Wave 2, youth psychopathology was rated by parents and teachers using multiple methods (i.e., structured interview, rating scale). We employed moderated multiple mediation and compared conditional indirect effects across youth genotypes at two biologically plausible genetic loci. Controlling for parent ADHD symptoms as well as youth demographic factors and co-occurring externalizing symptoms, these genetic factors moderated the indirect effect from Wave 1 parenting to multi-method/informant Wave 2 ADHD symptoms through Wave 1 neurocognitive functioning. This preliminary study is the first to identify genetic moderation of mediated effects underlying ADHD symptoms and suggests that specific gene × parenting interactions may underlie neurocognitive functioning deficits and subsequent ADHD.

Although individual differences in fluid reasoning reliably mediate predictions of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms from birth weight in youth with typical cognitive development (TD), it is unknown if this indirect effect operates similarly in the development of ADHD symptoms secondary to intellectual disability (ID). Thus, we evaluated mediation by fluid reasoning in a longitudinal sample of 163 youth (45% female) with (n = 52) or without (n = 111) ID who were followed prospectively from age 5 to age 13. At age 9, youth completed the Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, a measure of fluid reasoning. At ages 9 and 13, mothers and teachers separately rated youth ADHD symptoms and mothers completed a diagnostic interview. Mediation was tested via path analysis with bootstrapped confidence intervals, and moderated mediation estimated whether indirect effects differed between ID and TD youth or based on youth IQ. Controlling for demographic factors and age 9 ADHD symptoms, age 9 Arithmetic mediated birth weight and multi-method/informant age 13 ADHD symptoms, such that birth weight positively predicted Arithmetic, which negatively predicted ADHD symptoms. Neither ID status nor IQ moderated the observed indirect effect through Arithmetic, suggesting that it was similar for ID and TD youth as well as across the range of youth IQs. These findings support previous evidence that fluid reasoning, as measured by Arithmetic, may causally mediate birth weight and ADHD symptoms, and suggest that this pathway operates similarly with respect to the development of ADHD symptoms in youth with ID.

Cumulative risk research has increased understanding of how multiple risk factors impact various socioemotional and interpersonal outcomes across the life span. However, little is known about risk factors for parent-child conflict early in development, where identifying predictors of change could be highly salient for intervention. Given their established association with parent-child conflict, child developmental delay (DD) and emotion dysregulation were examined as predictors of change in conflict across early to middle childhood (ages 3 to 7 years). Participants (n = 211) were part of a longitudinal study examining the development of psychopathology in children with or without DD. Level of parent-child conflict was derived from naturalistic home observations, whereas child dysregulation was measured using an adapted CBCL-Emotion Dysregulation Index. PROCESS was used to examine the conditional interactive effects of delay status (typically developing, DD) and dysregulation on change in conflict from child ages 3 to 5 and 5 to 7 years. Across both of these timeframes, parent-child conflict increased only for families of children with both DD and high dysregulation, providing support for an interactive risk model of parent-child conflict. Findings are considered in the context of developmental transitions, and implications for intervention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Initial intervention processes for children with intellectual disabilities (IDs) largely focused on direct efforts to impact core cognitive and academic deficits associated with the diagnosis. Recent research on risk processes in families of children with ID, however, has influenced new developmental system approaches to early intervention. Recent risk and resilience processes are reviewed that connect stress, family process, and the high rates of behavioral problems in children with ID that have substantial influence on child and family outcomes. These models are linked to emerging evidence-based intervention processes that focus on strategic parent skill training and mindfulness interventions that reduce parental stress and create indirect benefits for children's behavioral competencies. A family-focused developmental systems approach (M. J. Guralnick, 2011) is emphasized.

Mothers' and fathers' emotion socialization (ES) practices have been widely associated with child socioemotional outcomes. To extend this research, we examined the bidirectional relationship between parent ES practices (supportive and non-supportive parenting) and internalizing behavior problems in children of Anglo and Latino parents. Participants were 182 mothers and 162 fathers and their children with or without intellectual disability (ID). We compared the stability of mother and father ES practices across child ages 4-8. We utilized cross-lagged panel modeling to examine the bidirectional relationship between parents' ES and child internalizing behavior problems. Emotion socialization practices differed across time by parent gender, with mothers displaying higher levels of supportive parenting and lower levels of non-supportive parenting than fathers. Cross-lagged panel models revealed differential relationships between child internalizing behaviors and emotion socialization practices by parent gender and by ethnicity. Implications for intervening with culturally diverse families of children with ID are discussed.

Disruptive behavior disorders were assessed in 160 youth aged 13 years, with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n = 48), intellectual disability (ID, n = 28), or typical development (TD, n = 84). Mothers' reported collateral effects on their psychological adjustment were related to both youth disability status and clinical level behavior disorders. More youth with ASD or ID had clinical level behavior disorders than their TD peers, and their mothers reported significantly higher personal stress and psychological symptoms, as well as lower positive impact of the youth on the family. The youth's clinical level behavior disorders accounted for these differences more than the diagnostic status. Mothers high in dispositional optimism reported the lowest stress and psychological symptoms in relationship to youth behavior challenges.

Introduction: While transitioning to adulthood presents challenges for youth with developmental disabilities (DD), opportunities to develop adult social roles and communication skills may foster more optimal outcomes. One such opportunity is developing conflict resolution skills within parent-adolescent relationships. Methods: We examined how reported conflict and observed conflict resolution behaviors differed between adolescents with typical development or DD, specifically intellectual disability (ID) and/or autism spectrum disorder, and their mothers. Participants (n = 167) were mid-adolescents (age 15) from a longitudinal study of how psychopathology develops in youth with or without DD. Results: While mothers' "Reported Conflict" was similar across groups, "Mother Problem Solving" was highest, and "Youth Problem Solving" lowest, in families of youth with ID. Higher "Reported Conflict" related to more negative observed conflict resolution behaviors across all groups. Conclusions: Results are considered in the context of transitioning to adulthood.

School-based mental health services are a promising context for evidence-based interventions to promote early socio-emotional development, yet implementation presents significant challenges. This paper describes the rationale, content and format of a school-based intervention, Starting Strong in Kindergarten (Starting Strong). Starting Strong is a 10 week, indicated prevention programme aimed at promoting positive student–teacher relationships and behavioural adjustment during the transition to kindergarten. This parent- and teacher-focused indicated prevention programme targets children with or at risk for disruptive behaviour problems. The paper describes feasibility results of a pilot study of Starting Strong’s parent programme. Twenty-five families participated; rates of enrolment, attendance, retention, session engagement, homework completion, treatment fidelity and participant satisfaction suggest promising feasibility. School-based efforts targeting the transition to kindergarten may be helpful in improving behavioural and relational adjustment, especially for children who begin school with behavioural or relational risk.

Starting Strong in Kindergarten (Starting Strong) is a school-based indicated prevention targeting behavior problems, student-teacher relationships, and parent-school connectedness for children with or at risk for disruptive behavior problems during the transition to kindergarten. By use of a block-randomized, controlled trial to test program feasibility and efficacy, seven schools (representing 33 kindergarten classrooms and 97 children, 74% of whom were boys, 57% of whom were White, and 38% of whom were English language learners) were assigned to the immediate-intervention versus delayed control condition. A 10-week parent group (offered in both English and Spanish) and four-session teacher group consultation program addressed strategies for promoting positive behavior, student-teacher relationships, and parent-teacher collaboration. Feasibility was supported by high parent and teacher attendance, engagement, and satisfaction. The intervention had effects on overall parent- and teacher-reported behavior problems, as well as on parent-reported externalizing problems and parent- and teacher-reported internalizing problems, although not on a teacher-reported externalizing problems scale. Implications for sustainable, school-based mental health interventions are discussed. The transition to kindergarten may be a particularly apt time to address behavioral and relational adjustment in school.

This study explores accurate conceptualization of the adaptation construct in families of children with developmental delay aged 3 to 8 years. Parents' self-reported measures of adaptation and observed dyadic relationship variables were examined. Confirmatory factor analysis and longitudinal growth modeling were used to evaluate the nature of adaptational processes. Results indicate that adaptational processes vary across adaptation index, child developmental level, and parent gender. Adaptation indices did not load onto a single construct at any time point. Several adaptational processes remained stable across time, although others showed linear or quadratic change. The findings of the current study indicate that it is time for a change in how adaptation is conceived for families of children with developmental delay.

© 2015, Routledge. All rights reserved. Dual diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and behavior problems and/or mental disorders has become increasingly recognized and studied. Reported rates in samples of mixed-age youth with ASD are often above 70%, making this comorbidity more the rule than the exception. The present study compared rates of disruptive behavior disorder diagnosis in a sample of 13-year-old adolescents with ASD (n = 58), intellectual disability (ID; n = 40), or typical cognitive development (TD; n = 100). In youth without ASD, there was a high negative correlation between IQ and disruptive behavior disorders, assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC). In youth with ASD, however, the presence of a comorbid disruptive behavior disorder was unrelated to IQ, indicating that higher intelligence was not a protective factor for disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) in ASD. On four CBCL scales and two DISC scales examined, youth with ASD had significantly higher rates than TD youth, though not generally higher than youth with ID. The most commonly diagnosed comorbid disorder in the early adolescents with ASD was attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This has implications for planning school-based interventions, particularly for high-functioning children with ASD who are more likely to be fully included in general education.

Children with developmental delays (DD) are at heightened risk for developing clinically significant behavioral and emotional difficulties as compared to children with typical development (TD). However, nearly all studies comparing psychopathology in youth with DD employ TD control groups of the same chronological age (CA). It is unclear, then, whether the heightened symptomology found in age-matched children with DD is beyond what would be expected given their developmental level. The present study assessed rates of behavior problems and mental disorder in 35 children with DD at age 9 years. These were compared with rates from 35 children with TD matched for CA at age 9 and also earlier rates for these same children at age 6, when matched for mental age (MA). Children with DD had significantly more behavior problems in 7 of the 17 scales of the CBCL when compared to TD children matched for CA, and 6 of 17 scales when compared to the MA-matched group. Rates of meeting DSM-IV criteria for a psychiatric disorder were significantly higher in the DD group than both the CA- and MA-matched TD groups for three and four, respectively, of the seven diagnoses examined. Descriptively, the mean ratings for all variables assessed were higher for the DD group than both TD comparison groups, with the exception of the Anxious/Depressed scale of the CBCL. These findings validate the heightened risk for clinically significant behavior problems and mental disorders in youth with DD above and beyond their developmental functioning.

The purpose of this study was to examine group differences in presentation and trajectory of anxiety symptoms and disorders in children with moderate to borderline intellectual disability (ID) and children with typical cognitive development (TD). Examined anxiety disorders and symptoms in children with ID (n=74) or TD (n=116) annually from ages 5 through 9 using a parent structured interview and questionnaire. Logistic regression was used to examine odds of meeting anxiety criteria and hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine anxiety trajectory. Children with ID had significantly higher rates of clinical levels of anxiety on the Child Behavior Checklist at ages 8 and 9 and higher rates of separation anxiety disorder at age 5 compared to those with TD. Children with ID were also more likely to have externalizing problems co-occurring with anxiety. The rate of increase of anxiety symptoms over time was positive and similar in the two groups, and neither group showed sex differences in anxiety rates. Results suggest that children with ID have both higher rates of anxiety across time and are delayed in showing typical decreases in separation anxiety in early childhood. Implications for intervention are discussed in terms of the importance of screening for and treating anxiety in children with ID.

Researchers have identified numerous internal and external factors that contribute to individual differences in emotion regulation (ER) abilities. To extend these findings, we examined the longitudinal effects of a significant external predictor (parenting) on children's ER abilities in the context of an internal predictor (intellectual functioning). We used cross-lagged panel modeling to investigate the transactional relationship between parenting and ER in children with or without developmental delays (DD) across three time points in early and middle childhood (age 3, 5, and 8). Participants were 225 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of young children with or without DD. Child ER ability and maternal scaffolding skills were coded from mother-child interactions at ages 3, 5, and 8. Compared to children with typical development (TD), children with DD were significantly more dysregulated at all time points, and their mothers exhibited fewer scaffolding behaviors in early childhood. In addition, cross-lagged panel models revealed a significant bidirectional relationship between maternal scaffolding and ER from ages 3 to 5 in the DD group but not the TD group. These findings suggest that scaffolding may be a crucial parenting skill to target in the early treatment of children with ER difficulties.

This paper focuses on factors that might influence positive parenting during middle childhood when a parent faces formidable challenges defined herein as "resilient parenting." Data were obtained from 162 families at child age 5 and 8 years. Using an adapted ABCX model, we examined three risk domains (child developmental delay, child ADHD/ODD diagnosis, and low family income) and three protective factors (mother's education, health, and optimism). The outcome of interest was positive parenting as coded from mother-child interactions. We hypothesized that each of the risk factors would predict poorer parenting and that higher levels of each protective factor would buffer the risk-parenting relationship. Positive parenting scores decreased across levels of increasing risk. Maternal optimism appeared to be a protective factor for resilient parenting concurrently at age 5 and predictively to age 8, as well as a predictor of positive change in parenting from age 5 to age 8, above and beyond level of risk. Maternal education and health were not significantly protective for positive parenting. Limitations, future directions, and implications for intervention are discussed.

A previous study suggested that mothers of 5-year-old children with borderline intellectual functioning displayed lower positive engagement with their children as compared with both mothers of typically developing children and mothers of children with significant developmental delays (Fenning, Baker, Baker, & Crnic, 2007). The current study integrated father data and followed these families over the subsequent 1-year period. Parent and child behavior were coded from naturalistic home observations at both waves. Results revealed that mothers of children with borderline intellectual functioning displayed a greater increase in negative-controlling parenting from child age 5 to 6 than did other mothers; fathers displayed more negative-controlling behavior in comparison to fathers of typically developing children. In addition, children with borderline intellectual functioning themselves exhibited a more significant escalation in difficult behavior than did typically developing children. Cross-lagged analyses for the sample as a whole indicated that maternal negative-controlling behavior predicted subsequent child difficulties, whereas negative paternal behavior was predicted by earlier child behavior. In conjunction with evidence from Fenning et al. (2007), these findings suggest a complex, dynamic, and systemic developmental pattern in the emotional behavior of families of children with borderline intellectual functioning. Implications and areas in need of additional research are discussed.

The transactional model of development has received empirical support in research on at-risk children. However, little is known about the role of ethnicity or child delay status (i.e., developmental delay [DD] or typical cognitive development [TD]) in the process of parents adapting to their child's behavior problems and special needs. We examined whether Latina (N=44) and Anglo (N=147) mothers of 3-year-old children with or without DD differed in their use of two parenting practices, maternal scaffolding and sensitivity. We also examined how the status and ethnic groups differed in child behavior problems at ages 3 and 5 and whether parenting predicted change in behavior problems over time in the ethnic and status groups. Analyses generally supported previous research on status group differences in behavior problems (DD higher) and parenting practices (TD higher). Parenting practices predicted a decrease in externalizing problems from child age 3 to 5 years among Latino families only. Child developmental status was not associated with change in behavior problems. Cultural perspectives on the transactional model of development and implications for intervention are discussed.

Keeping traditionally underrepresented children and their families engaged in treatment until completion is a major challenge for many community-based mental health clinics. The current study used data collected as part of the National Child Traumatic Stress Network Core Data Set to examine whether racial/ethnic disparities exist in treatment duration and completion in children seeking treatment for trauma exposure. We then explored whether disparities persist after accounting for other variables associated with children's social contexts and the treatment setting. The sample included 562 ethnically diverse children receiving services from a child abuse prevention and treatment agency in Southern California. The results indicated that African American children had significantly shorter trauma-informed treatment duration and higher rates of premature termination than Spanish-speaking Latino children. These disparities persisted even with other variables associated with treatment duration and completion (e.g., child's age, level of functional impairment, and receipt of group and field services) in the model. Implications and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Initial intervention processes for children with intellectual disabilities (IDs) largely focused on direct efforts to impact core cognitive and academic deficits associated with the diagnosis. Recent research on risk processes in families of children with ID, however, has influenced new developmental system approaches to early intervention. Recent risk and resilience processes are reviewed that connect stress, family process, and the high rates of behavioral problems in children with ID that have substantial influence on child and family outcomes. These models are linked to emerging evidence-based intervention processes that focus on strategic parent skill training and mindfulness interventions that reduce parental stress and create indirect benefits for children's behavioral competencies. A family-focused developmental systems approach (M. J. Guralnick, 2011) is emphasized.

Starting Strong in Kindergarten (Starting Strong) is a school-based indicated prevention targeting behavior problems, student-teacher relationships, and parent-school connectedness for children with or at risk for disruptive behavior problems during the transition to kindergarten. By use of a block-randomized, controlled trial to test program feasibility and efficacy, seven schools (representing 33 kindergarten classrooms and 97 children, 74% of whom were boys, 57% of whom were White, and 38% of whom were English language learners) were assigned to the immediate-intervention versus delayed control condition. A 10-week parent group (offered in both English and Spanish) and four-session teacher group consultation program addressed strategies for promoting positive behavior, student-teacher relationships, and parent-teacher collaboration. Feasibility was supported by high parent and teacher attendance, engagement, and satisfaction. The intervention had effects on overall parent- and teacher-reported behavior problems, as well as on parent-reported externalizing problems and parent- and teacher-reported internalizing problems, although not on a teacher-reported externalizing problems scale. Implications for sustainable, school-based mental health interventions are discussed. The transition to kindergarten may be a particularly apt time to address behavioral and relational adjustment in school.

School-based mental health services are a promising context for evidence-based interventions to promote early socio-emotional development, yet implementation presents significant challenges. This paper describes the rationale, content and format of a school-based intervention, Starting Strong in Kindergarten (Starting Strong). Starting Strong is a 10 week, indicated prevention programme aimed at promoting positive student-teacher relationships and behavioural adjustment during the transition to kindergarten. This parent- and teacher-focused indicated prevention programme targets children with or at risk for disruptive behaviour problems. The paper describes feasibility results of a pilot study of Starting Strong's parent programme. Twenty-five families participated; rates of enrolment, attendance, retention, session engagement, homework completion, treatment fidelity and participant satisfaction suggest promising feasibility. School-based efforts targeting the transition to kindergarten may be helpful in improving behavioural and relational adjustment, especially for children who begin school with behavioural or relational risk.

Dual diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and behavior problems and/or mental disorders has become increasingly recognized and studied. Reported rates in samples of mixed-age youth with ASD are often above 70%, making this comorbidity more the rule than the exception. The present study compared rates of disruptive behavior disorder diagnosis in a sample of 13-year-old adolescents with ASD (n = 58), intellectual disability (ID; n = 40), or typical cognitive development (TD; n = 100). In youth without ASD, there was a high negative correlation between IQ and disruptive behavior disorders, assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC). In youth with ASD, however, the presence of a comorbid disruptive behavior disorder was unrelated to IQ, indicating that higher intelligence was not a protective factor for disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) in ASD. On four CBCL scales and two DISC scales examined, youth with ASD had significantly higher rates than TD youth, though not generally higher than youth with ID. The most commonly diagnosed comorbid disorder in the early adolescents with ASD was attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. This has implications for planning school-based interventions, particularly for high-functioning children with ASD who are more likely to be fully included in general education.

Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are at heightened risk for mental disorders. Using current diagnostic criteria, disruptive behavior disorders, specifically Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), appear to be the most prevalent co-occurring disorders. However, the validity of ADHD as a diagnosis for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities remains unclear. The present study examined the clinical presentation of ADHD (prevalence, sex differences, and comorbidity) among adolescents with and without intellectual disability (ID) as well as investigated the validity of ADHD for adolescents with ID by examining similarities in terms of symptom presentation, developmental course, and associated functional impairment. The sample included 142 adolescents and their families, about a third of whom were classified in the ID group and the remaining were in the typically developing (TD) group. Findings indicated that adolescents with ID continue to be at elevated risk for ADHD (risk ratio: 3.38:1) compared to their typically developing peers. Additionally, the presentation of ADHD appeared similar among adolescents with and without ID, supporting the validity of an ADHD diagnosis for this population of adolescents. Implications for public policy and intervention are discussed.

This study examined the extent to which child syndromes and observation context related to mothers' parenting behaviors. Longitudinal observations were conducted of parenting behavior across ages 3, 4, and 5 years during structured and unstructured activities. The 183 participants included mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders, cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, undifferentiated developmental delay, or typical cognitive development. Negative parenting behaviors were higher in structured activities and higher in mothers of children in all developmentally delayed groups. Positive parenting was higher in unstructured activities and especially high for mothers of children with Down syndrome. Despite differences found through direct observation of parenting children in different diagnostic groups, they are not as strong as syndrome-group differences found through more commonly used self-report questionnaires assessing domains like parenting stress.

The self-perceived physical health of mothers raising children with developmental delay (DD; N = 116) or typical development (TD; N = 129) was examined across child ages 3-9 years, revealing three main findings. First, mothers of children with DD experienced poorer self-rated physical health than mothers of children with TD at each age. Latent growth curve analyses indicated that mothers in the DD group experienced poorer health from age 3 but that the two groups showed similar growth across ages 3-9 years. Second, cross-lagged panel analyses supported a child-driven pathway in early childhood (ages 3-5) by which early mother-reported child behavior problems predicted poorer maternal health over time, while the reversed, health-driven path was not supported. Third, this cross-lagged path was significantly stronger in the DD group, indicating that behavior problems more strongly impact mothers' health when children have developmental delay than when children have typical development. The health disparity between mothers of children with DD vs. TD stabilized by child age 5 and persisted across early and middle childhood. Early interventions ought to focus on mothers' well-being, both psychological and physical, in addition to child functioning. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

The study examines the epidemiology of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) for children with intellectual disabilities (ID; n = 49), children with borderline intellectual functioning (BIF; n = 20), and typically developing children (TD; n = 115). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children was administered to mothers at child ages 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 years. Children with ID had consistently higher rates of ODD than TD children, whereas children with BIF had intermediate prevalence rates. The comorbidity of ODD with other disorders, especially attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, was elevated for children with ID. There were no group differences in gender, age of onset, or stability of ODD and all of the groups endorsed symptoms of ODD with the same relative frequency. Accordingly, the study findings generally support the assertion that ODD is the same disorder for children with and without ID. (Contains 6 tables and 2 footnotes.)

Parenting stress and child behavior problems have been posited to have a transactional effect on each other across development. However, few studies have tested this model empirically. The authors investigated the relationship between parenting stress and child behavior problems from ages 3 to 9 years old among 237 children, 144 of whom were typically developing and 93 who were identified as developmentally delayed. Behavior problems and parenting stress covaried significantly across time for both groups of children. Cross-lagged panel analyses generally supported a bidirectional relationship between parenting stress and child behavior problems for mothers and fathers.