Search

The vitamin K-dependent carboxylase carries out the posttranslational modification of specific glutamate residues in proteins to gamma-carboxy glutamic acid (Gla) in the presence of reduced vitamin K, molecular oxygen, and carbon dioxide. In the process, reduced vitamin K is converted to vitamin K epoxide, which is subsequently reduced to vitamin K, by vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR) for use in the carboxylation reaction. The modification has a wide range of physiological implications, including hemostasis, bone calcification, and signal transduction. The enzyme interacts with a high affinity gamma-carboxylation recognition sequence (gamma-CRS) of the substrate and carries out multiple modifications of the substrate before the product is released. This mechanism ensures complete carboxylation of the Gla domain of the coagulation factors, which is essential for their biological activity. gamma-Carboxylation, originally discovered in mammals, is widely distributed in the animal kingdom. It has been characterized in sea squirt (Ciona intestinalis), in flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and in marine snails (Conus textile), none of which have a blood coagulation system similar to mammals. The cone snails express a large array of gamma-carboxylated peptides that modulate the activity of ion channels. These findings have led to the suggestion that gamma-carboxylation is an extracellular posttranslational modification that antedates the divergence of molluscs, arthropods, and chordates. I will first summarize recent understanding of gamma-carboxylase and gamma-carboxylation gleaned from experiments using the mammalian enzyme, and then I will briefly describe the available information on gamma-carboxylation in D. melanogaster and C. textile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A laboratory pot experiment (Experiment 1) was conducted to determine the optimal ratio of groundnut haulm and shell as composting substrates. The aim was to identify the most effective combination for rapid decomposition under in vivo conditions. The experiment was carried out in 2022, from May to July, using a completely randomized design (CRD) with 6 treatments that were replicated 4 times. The treatment combinations in the pot experiment were as follows: T 1 : haulm + shell (1:1), T 2 : haulm + shell (2:1), T 3 : haulm + shell (3:1), T 4 : T 1 + C n , T 5 : T 2 + C n , and T 6 : T 3 + C n . Here, C n refers to the cellulose-degrading efficient microbial consortium containing bacterial strains Priestia megaterium DBJ6, Micrococcus yunnanensis DMB9, and fungal strains Aspergillus foetidus DAJ2, Trichoderma atrobrunnium DTJ4, and Phanerochaete chrysosporium CBS129.27. Based on the results (results of chemical and biological properties) of the pot experiment, treatment T 6 was considered the best treatment (the C/N ratio was 14.36 ± 0.444 after three months of decomposition) for further study under in vivo conditions. The in vivo experiment (Experiment 2) was conducted at the Jaguli Instructional Farm of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal, India, during the months of August to October in both 2022 and 2023 with two treatments: the normal composting treatment (NC) and the rapid composting treatment (RC). The findings of Experiment 2 showed that organic substrates degraded more quickly (within 90 days) during rapid composting, as evidenced by a decrease in the C/N ratio to below 15 (14.32 and 13.97 on day 90 in 2022 and 2023, respectively). Whereas, normal composting required more than 90 days to achieve a C/N ratio below 20 (23.80 and 23.15 on day 90 in 2022 and 2023, respectively). The RC treatment also showed a higher microbial population and enzyme activity compared to the NC treatment. Therefore, according to the results of this experiment, it can be concluded that the inoculation of the microbial consortium was more beneficial for accelerating the composting process under the same composting circumstances and substrate ratio., Competing Interests: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest., (© 2024 The Author(s).)

Voltage-gated sodium (Na V ) channels are transmembrane proteins that play a critical role in electrical signaling in the nervous system and other excitable tissues. µ-Conotoxins are peptide toxins from the venoms of marine cone snails (genus Conus) that block Na V channels with nanomolar potency. Most species of the subgenera Textilia and Afonsoconus are difficult to acquire; therefore, their venoms have yet to be comprehensively interrogated for µ-conotoxins. The goal of this study was to find new µ-conotoxins from species of the subgenera Textilia and Afonsoconus and investigate their selectivity at human Na V channels. Using RNA-seq of the venom gland of Conus (Textilia) bullatus, we identified 12 µ-conotoxin (or µ-conotoxin-like) sequences. Based on these sequences we designed primers which we used to identify additional µ-conotoxin sequences from DNA extracted from historical specimens of species from Textilia and Afonsoconus. We synthesized six of these µ-conotoxins and tested their activity on human Na V 1.1-Na V 1.8. Five of the six synthetic peptides were potent blockers of human Na V channels. Of these, two peptides (BuIIIB and BuIIIE) were potent blockers of hNa V 1.3. Three of the peptides (BuIIIB, BuIIIE and AdIIIA) had submicromolar activity at hNa V 1.7. This study serves as an example of the identification of new peptide toxins from historical DNA and provides new insights into structure-activity relationships of µ-conotoxins with activity at hNa V 1.3 and hNa V 1.7., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The American pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus , was introduced to Europe more than one hundred years ago. Currently it is a common fish in European freshwaters but relatively few specific parasites infect this fish in this new habitat. In Europe only a single species, Myxobolus dechtiari seems to represent the American myxosporean fauna of centrarchid fishes. M. dechtiari was found in both Portugal and Hungary. This species forms plasmodia with elongated shape inside the cartilaginous rays of gill filaments. In the advanced stage of infection, after disruption of plasmodia, small groups of myxospores remain enclosed in the cartilaginous gill rays causing distortions in the filaments. Myxospores were ellipsoidal in frontal view and lemon-shape in sutural, length 12.5 ± 0.46 (12-13.4) μm, width 10 ± 0.37 (9.6-10.4) μm, and thickness 7.4 ± 0.37 (7-8) μm; the polar capsules were pyriform, equal in size, length 5.6 ± 0.21 (5.3-6) μm, width 3.2 ± 0.16 (3-3.6) μm; Seven to eight polar tube coils were arranged perpendicularly to the capsule length. There was a small, round, 0.4 ± 0.1 (0.3-05) (N = 50) intercapsular appendix in the spores. The small subunit ribosomal DNA (ssrDNA) of M. dechtiari differed from other myxozoans sequenced to date. Phylogenetic analysis of the ssrDNA gene sequence placed this species in a clade including actinospores and Myxobolus species: Raabeia type1, Triactinomyxon sp., and Myxobolus osburni infecting the same host fish. The focus of our study was to prove that the pumpkinseed, a fish originated from North-America introduced one of its myxosporean parasite to Europe. Emphasis was put on to demonstrate the unique feature of this parasite causing infection in the cartilaginous gill rays., (© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Australian Society for Parasitology.)

This communication deals with the morphology, taxonomy and life history of six new acephaline gregarines (Apicomplexa: Gregarinomorphea) of the genus Monocystis Stein (1848), Nematocystis Hesse (1909), Aikinetocystis Gates (1926) and Dirhynchocystis Cognetti de Martiis (1921) from oligochaete hosts. These are Monocystis molnari sp. nov. from Metaphire anomala (Clitellata: Opisthopora: Megascolecidae); Monocystis paneki sp. nov. from Lampito mauritii ( Clitellata: Opisthopora: Megascolecidae); Monocystis bulbae sp. nov from Metaphire posthuma (Clitellata: Opisthopora: Megascolecidae); Nematocystis cylindrum sp. nov. from Perionyx excavatus (Clitellata: Opisthopora: Megascolecidae); Aikinetocystis perionyxae sp. nov. from Perionyx excavatus (Clitellata: Opisthopora: Megascolecidae) and Dirhynchocystis drawidae sp. nov. from Drawida nepalensis (Clitellata: Haplotaxida: Moniligastridae). Trophozoites of Monocystis molnari sp. nov. elongated and cylindrical. Gametocysts elliptoid. Oocysts fusiform. Trophozoites of Monocystis paneki sp. nov. elongated and hump like. Gametocysts orbicular. Oocysts fusiform. Trophozoites of Monocystis bulbae sp. nov. elongated and cylindrical. Gametocysts fusiform. Oocysts fusiform. Trophozoites of Nematocystis cylindrum sp. nov. cylindrical. Gametocysts orbicular. Oocysts fusiform. Trophozoites of Aikinetocystis perionyxae sp. nov. cylindrical. Gametocyst ovoid. Oocysts fusiform. Dirhynchocystis drawidae sp. nov. having a capsule like body. Gametocysts orbicular. Oocysts rhomboid., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (© Indian Society for Parasitology 2020.)

Bacillus licheniformis, a pathogenic new strain of bacteria is considered as the main cause of high mortalities and economic losses among the ornamental fish farms of India. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-bacterial and Immunostimulant activity of three selected Indian medicinal plants, Allium sativum, Adhatoda vasica and Centella asiatica for treating Bacillus licheniformis PKBMS 16 by subsequent experimental and clinical trials using different organic polar and non-polar solvents. The antimicrobial and Immunostimulant activity of methanolic crude extracts of Adhatoda vasica was fractions and active constituents was further characterized by chromatography and mass spectroscopy studies using FTIR, 1 HNMR and 13c NMR to identify as well as to determine the nature of the pure compound which is phytol (C 20 H 40 O), a diterpene alcohol with a molecular weight of m/z 297. In order to study the in vivo anti-pathogenic influence of the biologically active compounds, phytol were incorporated to the artificial diets at the concentration of 2, 5 and 8 mg/kg and fed to the1.0 × 10 5  CFU/ml of Bacillus licheniformis PKBMS 16 injected experimentally challenged ornamental goldfish Carassius auratus for twenty days. Phytol treated group significantly (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05) reduced the rate of fish mortality. After the termination of survivability assay the estimation of hemato-biochemical parameters have been performed and revealed the significant recovery of health condition on 20th days post treatment. Therefore, the present study concluded that the low toxicity along with high bioactivity and tolerance by lower vertebrate supports the potential of phytol as a new compound for inducing fish immunity., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Ornamental fish culture is growing to a prosperly in India. India earned lot amount of money from this business but unfortunately the ornamental fishes are facing lots of problem due to the parasitic infestation. While surveying, some ciliate parasites namely, Trichodina oligocotti (Lom in Arch Protistenkd 112:153-177, 1970) and Tripertiella bulbosa (Davis in US Dept Interior Fish Bull 51:1-29, 1947) Lom (Acta Parasitol Polon 7:573-590, 1959) have been identified from ornamental fish Botia rostrata from Arunachal Pradesh, India. The species have been identified according to the guidelines of Lom (J Protozool 5:251-263, 1958). Through out the world records of many trichodinid infection was documented but no such investigation have been carried out earlier in Arunachal Pradesh. The present study embodies the morphology and morphometrics of trichodinid ciliates of ornamental fish, Botia rostata collected from the Subansiri river of Arunachal Pradesh for the first time in India., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (© Indian Society for Parasitology 2019.)

Gregarines are mainly coelozoic parasites belonging to the protozoan phylum Apicomplexa. The present communication deals with 137 species belonging to the genera Aikinetocystis Gates, 1926; Apolocystis Cognetii de Martiis, 1923; Dirhynchocystis Cognetii de Martiis, 1921; Enterocystis Tsvetkov, 1926; Nematocystis Hesse 1909; Rhynchocystis Hesse 1909; and Zygocystis Von Stain, 1848. This study was conducted to explore the diversity of gregarine parasites infecting the oligochaete hosts of the world., Competing Interests: Confilct of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Microbial studies on Catfish revealed that Klebsiella is the most common pathogen causing prevalence of ulcers, fin erosion, and other lesions. During this study, a new strain of bacteria was isolated from Channa punctatus, and molecular identification by 16srRNA revealed the strain was Klebsiella PKBSG14 (Accession no KJ162158). The strain was also PCR positive for two virulent gene wcaG (Accession no LN606595) and rmpA (Accession no LN606594) responsible for inflammatory reactions and induction of innate immune response in the host cell. To study innate immune response induced by pathogenic infection the phagocytic interactive process between the spleen macrophages and KlebsiellaPKBSG14 was investigated using optical microscopy. FACS of splenic macrophages revealed that the phagocytic interaction leads to the process of macrophage cell cycle progression. A detailed study on the macrophage DNA content by performing DNA fragmentation and comet allowed us to study simultaneously host cell division as a function of phagocytosis and the findings unveiled the fact that Phagocytosis of KlebsiellaPKBSG14 aided in macrophage cell cycle progression but was less likely to complete mitosis. Here we also report the cytotoxic effect linked to the infection with KlebsiellaPKBSG14 by performing Cell viability assay, intracellular production of ROS, and mitochondrial transmembrane potential where it manifested itself in impaired cellular function. So, in summary, we simultaneously discovered a new strain of bacteria ie. Klebsiella PKBSG14 as well as deliberately attempted to study the immunomodulatory effect of isolated new stain on Channa punctatus by performing host-pathogen phagocytic interactive experiments, the cell cycle state of the host cell and pathogen-mediated cytotoxicity along with genotoxicity, and our results evidence a new immunomodulatory effect of KlebsiellaPKBSG14 infection on fish splenic macrophages., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Disulfide-rich peptides are highly abundant in nature and their study has provided fascinating insight into protein folding, structure and function. Venomous cone snails belong to a group of organisms that express one of the largest sets of disulfide-rich peptides (conotoxins) found in nature. The diversity of structural scaffolds found for conotoxins suggests that specialized molecular adaptations have evolved to ensure their efficient folding and secretion. We recently showed that canonical protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and a conotoxin-specific PDI (csPDI) are ubiquitously expressed in the venom gland of cone snails and play a major role in conotoxin folding. Here, we identify cone snail endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreductin-1 ( Conus Ero1) and investigate its role in the oxidative folding of conotoxins through reoxidation of cone snail PDI and csPDI. We show that Conus Ero1 preferentially reoxidizes PDI over csPDI, suggesting that the reoxidation of csPDI may rely on an Ero1-independent molecular pathway. Despite the preferential reoxidation of PDI over csPDI, the combinatorial effect of Ero1 and csPDI provides higher folding yields than Ero1 and PDI. We further demonstrate that the highest in vitro folding rates of two model conotoxins are achieved when all three enzymes are present, indicating that these enzymes may act synergistically. Our findings provide new insight into the generation of one of the most diverse classes of disulfide-rich peptides and may improve current in vitro approaches for the production of venom peptides for pharmacological studies.

Fish mortality and poor growth in surviving fish contribute substantial losses to the ornamental fish farms of India and revealed an infection of a new myxosporidian parasite Thelohanellus indiana n. sp. which has become one of the most important limiting factors for successful aquaculture management. The parasite infects Carassius auratus, an Indian goldfish, described on the basis of myxospores morphology and amplification of a part of 18 S rDNA gene. Three major attaching site of fish body have been explored for showing the location of attachment for the parasites. The whitish cysts of the parasites are about 2.5-3.5 mm contains large amount of lemon shaped mature myxospores measuring 12.1-15.2 (13.8) × 7.5-8.8 (8) μm. A single round or elliptical polar capsule located only at the anterior pole of the spore having 6.2-7.2 (6.8) × 3.3-4.7 (4.0) μm in diameter. The morphological characters have been assessed by both the light and scanning electron microscope. The most differentiating feature from closely related species was carried out by morpho-taxonomic affinities with previously described species which are tremendously supported by molecular taxonomy by partial sequencing of the 18 S rDNA gene resulted in a total of 2101 bp fragment of newly obtained SSU rRNA gene sequence of the new species which exhibit 79-91% homogeneity with other closely related species available in GenBank. The BLAST search of Thelohanellus sp. did not matches with any available sequences in GenBank and the phylogenetic analysis revealed that the novel species were sister to T. habibpuri and T. caudatus, in the Thelohanellus clade and form a closest neighboring branch as a subclade in phylogenetic tree from which the new Thelohanellus parasite is being placed. Both the branches are originating from monophyletic clade that are strongly supported by bootstrap values which indicate clearly about independent position of T. indiana n. sp., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A new species of myxozoan, Thelohanellus goldi n. sp. is described using morphological and molecular data, parasitizing the fin filaments from 18 of 25 host specimens (72.5%) of Carassius auratus collected from different ornamental fish farms of India. Mature spore of the new species were oval to spherical in frontal view having rounded posterior ends and tapering anterior end measures 8.7-10.26 (9.50) × 4.10-7.89 (5.84) μm. The single large polar capsule, round to oval in shape but slightly pointed at the anterior end measuring 4.91-7.63 (5.60) × 2.3-3.1 (2.96) μm and located just below the anterior end of the spore. Polar filament only at distal end with 5-6 loose coils. The most differentiating feature from closely related species was carried out by morpho-taxonomic affinities with previously described species which are tremendously supported by molecular taxonomy by partial sequencing of the 18S rDNA gene resulted in a total of 2124 bp fragment of newly obtained small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequence of the new species which Exhibit 93-95% homogeneity with other closely related species available in GenBank. The BLAST search and high genetic diversity of distance matrix of Myxobolus sp. did not properly match with any available sequences in GenBank and make sister clade with Thelohanellus caudatus and Thelohanellus habibpuri in the Thelohanellus clade including most of Thelohanellus spp. The study of evolutionary history enables us to understand the evolution of modern species and supports some uncertain topologies which are being presented regarding the morphometric analysis. The severity of myxozoan infection has been assessed in this article by observing the histopathological changes of fins of the C. auratus along with the diversity, distribution and taxonomic description of the new Thelohanellus species with their new host and locality records., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

During the parasitological survey of ornamental fish in India the authors identified two trichodinid ciliophorans for the first time in India, during the year 2014-16 and also revealed that goldfish, Carassius auratus, was the most susceptible species for trichodinid infection. Two ciliophorans have been isolated and identified on the basis of wet silver nitrate impregnation technique followed by taxonomic description, morphometric variability and comparative data with its closely related species. Considering all the important features including diameter, structure of denticles, rays and ciliatures the authors are of the opinion that the identified species are new to science. Hence, the name Dipartiella indiana n. sp. and Dipartiella carassii n. sp. are being proposed here. Till date, only two species of the genus have been described from the edible fish, but no attention has been paid to ornamental fish. Moreover, The present study confirms the first report of this genus from ornamental fish species and added two more species under the genus Dipartiella (Raabe, 1959) Stein 1961 along with new host, locality and prevalence rates.

The relative efficacy of the isolated pure compound, extracted from Carica papaya seed has been tested against live fish, Channa punctatus infected with pathogenic strains of KlebsiellaPKBSG14 (gene bank accession no.KJ162158) at a dose of 0.75 CFU/ml in vivo. The isolated compound has been characterized by chromatography and mass spectroscopy studies using FTIR, 1 HNMR and 13c NMR to identify as well as to determine the nature of the pure compound. This study revealed the extracted biological molecule is oleic acid, a long chained saturated fatty acid (LFAs) with a molecular formula C 18 H 34 O 2 . Later this compound was analyzed for its efficacy as an antibacterial agent in vivo through cytotoxicological and genotoxicological assays. A dose of 0.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg b.w of isolated pure oleic acid has been tested and it showed effective result in regard to DNA fragmentation, comet tail length and toxicity biomarkers like ROS generation. The results of in vivo studies showed similar effects on spleen cells with regard to cell viability by PI staining, cell cycle analysis and also Annexin-FITC assay. Thus, the overall results suggest that oleic acid increases drug bioavailability and thereby has a better chemo-preventive action against bacterial infection in vivo., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The genus Conus comprises approximately 700 species of venomous marine cone snails that are highly efficient predators of worms, snails, and fish. In evolutionary terms, cone snails are relatively young with the earliest fossil records occurring in the Lower Eocene, 55 Ma. The rapid radiation of cone snail species has been accompanied by remarkably high rates of toxin diversification. To shed light on the molecular mechanisms that accompany speciation, we investigated the toxin repertoire of two sister species, Conus andremenezi and Conus praecellens, that were until recently considered a single variable species. A total of 196 and 250 toxin sequences were identified in the venom gland transcriptomes of C. andremenezi and C. praecellens belonging to 25 and 29 putative toxin gene superfamilies, respectively. Comparative analysis with closely (Conus tribblei and Conus lenavati) and more distantly related species (Conus geographus) suggests that speciation is associated with significant diversification of individual toxin genes (exogenes) whereas the expression pattern of toxin gene superfamilies within lineages remains largely conserved. Thus, changes within individual toxin sequences can serve as a sensitive indicator for recent speciation whereas changes in the expression pattern of gene superfamilies are likely to reflect more dramatic differences in a species' interaction with its prey, predators, and competitors., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution.)

A survey to know the diversity of endoparasitic protozoan parasites of the earthworms of West Bengal, revealed a new species of the genus Monocystis Stein, 1848, that resides in the seminal vesicle of the earthworm Perionyx excavatus Perrier. Monocystis kuidongae sp. nov. is characterized by ovoidal gamonts (trophozoites) with inconspicuous mucron and measure 69.53-102.25 (86.29 ± 11.48) μm × 24.54-61.35 (35.17 ± 12.82) μm. Shape of the gametocysts are almost rounded and measure 81.80-110.43 (96.11 ± 8.85) μm in diameter. Oocysts are navicular with pointed ends and measure 11.55-12.32 (11.78 ± 0.36) µm × 5.00-5.77 (5.39 ± 0.25) µm.

The communication, dealing with the prevalence of protozoan parasites of the ornamental fish of West Bengal. During the study more than five hundred fish have been examined from five districts namely, Nadia, Hooghly, Howrah, North 24-pargana and South 24-pargana of West Bengal during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon season. The study reveals that the intensity of infection is more in case of ciliate parasites. The highest ectoparasitic infection has been recorded during post-monsoon season, i.e. from November to February, followed by the pre-monsoon period while the lowest infection was recorded during monsoon i.e. from July to October which may lead to the conclusion that environmental factors are responsible for spreading infection.

The marine cone snail Conus gloriamaris is an iconic species. For over two centuries, its shell was one of the most prized and valuable natural history objects in the world. Today, cone snails have attracted attention for their remarkable venom components. Many conotoxins are proving valuable as research tools, drug leads, and drugs. In this article, we present the venom gland transcriptome of C. gloriamaris, revealing this species' conotoxin repertoire. More than 100 conotoxin sequences were identified, representing a valuable resource for future drug discovery efforts.

The venoms of cone snails (genus Conus) are remarkably complex, consisting of hundreds of typically short, disulfide-rich peptides termed conotoxins. These peptides have diverse pharmacological targets, with injection of venom eliciting a range of physiological responses, including sedation, paralysis and sensory overload. Most conotoxins target the prey's nervous system but evidence of venom peptides targeting neuroendocrine processes is emerging. Examples include vasopressin, RFamide neuropeptides and recently also insulin. To investigate the diversity of hormone/neuropeptide-like molecules in the venoms of cone snails we systematically mined the venom gland transcriptomes of several cone snail species and examined secreted venom peptides in dissected and injected venom of the Australian cone snail Conus victoriae. Using this approach we identified several novel hormone/neuropeptide-like toxins, including peptides similar to the bee brain hormone prohormone-4, the mollusc ganglia neuropeptide elevenin, and thyrostimulin, a member of the glycoprotein hormone family, and confirmed the presence of insulin. We confirmed that at least two of these peptides are not only expressed in the venom gland but also form part of the injected venom cocktail, unambiguously demonstrating their role in envenomation. Our findings suggest that hormone/neuropeptide-like toxins are a diverse and integral part of the complex envenomation strategy of Conus. Exploration of this group of venom components offers an exciting new avenue for the discovery of novel pharmacological tools and drug candidates, complementary to conotoxins., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

During the course of a biodiversity survey of the endoparasitic aseptate gregarines in the Malda district of West Bengal, India, seminal vesicles of the earthworm, Eutyphoeus kherai , Julka 1978 were found to be infested with a new species, Monocystis julkae sp.nov., of the genus, Monocystis Stein (Arch Anat Phys Med 181-223, 1848). The trophozoite is elongated but slightly constricted posteriorly. A tail like protrusion appears in the posterior end. Anterior end is rather wider than the posterior one. The whole body size of the trophozoite measures 102.2-184.0 (126.7 ± 19.9) µm × 40.9-81.8 (58.2 ± 10.0) µm. Size of the nucleus ranges from 10.2 to 16.3 (11.9 ± 1.9) µm × 8.1-12.2 (8.8 ± 1.2) µm. The gametocysts are ovoidal containing two unequal gametocytes. Diameter of it measures 61.3-98.1 (75.8 ± 8.6) µm. Oocysts are navicular and measures 6.9-10.0 (8.7 ± 0.9) µm × 3.0-4.6 (4.3 ± 0.4) µm.

18S ribosomal RNA gene sequences of different species of Plasmodium were aligned and analyzed to determine the molecular diversity among different species of Plasmodium . AT content of P . cynomolgi , P . ovale , P . falciparum , P . vivax and P . malariae ranged from 62.30 to 63.15, 63.90 to 65.29, 66.67 to 68.40, 61.66 to 63.25 and 64.09 to 76.36 in case respectively. GC content of P . cynomolgi , P . ovale , P . falciparum , P . vivax and P . malariae ranged from 36.85 to 37.70, 34.71 to 36.43, 31.60 to 33.27, 23.64 to 35.91 and 36.75 to 38.34 respectively. Molecular weight (Da) of P . cynomolgi , P . ovale , P . falciparum , P . vivax and P . malariae ranged from 1,160,127.00 to 1,400,332.00, 437,273.00 to 481,438.00, 668,021.00 to 685,243.00, 540,378.00 to 1,176,962.00 and 132,788.00 to 305,211.00 respectively. Relative melting temperature (Tm) of P . cynomolgi and P . ovale varied from 0.36799 to 0.36837 and 0.36712 to 0.36814 respectively. In P . falciparum and P . vivax relative Tm ranged from 0.36545 to 0.36626 and 0.36802 to 0.36866 respectively. Relative Tm of P . malariae varied from 0.36174 to 0.36790.

Myxobolus Bütschli, 1882 (Myxozoa, Myxosporea, Bivalvulida, Myxobolidae) is an important parasitic protozoan of freshwater fishes reported from almost all over the world. The severity of infection may lead to mortality of the host fish. The present paper deals with the description of three new species of Myxobolus Bütschli, 1882, Myxobolus sonarpurensis sp. nov., Myxobolus elongatum sp. nov. and Myxobolus petalum sp. nov. from a freshwater minor carp Labeo bata (Hamilton, 1822) and major carp Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822) respectively from West Bengal, India. Spores of Myxobolus sonarpurensis sp. nov. measures 12.16 µm × 6.74 µm, with two elongated unequal sized polar capsules measuring, 8.84 µm × 3.019 µm and 7.71 µm × 3.12 µm. Spores of Myxobolus elongatum sp. nov. are 16.23 µm × 7.9 µm with two equal polar capsules 8.896 µm × 3.468 µm and 6.51 µm × 3.46 µm. In comparison to aforementioned two new species, Myxobolus petalum sp. nov. have two equal polar capsules, 7.905 µm × 2.975 µm (2.9 µm) in each spore, 12.07 µm × 5.95 µm.

Three new species of Myxobolus are described from the mucous membrane around gill lamellae of carps of West Bengal. The new species have been named as M . muralidharani sp. n., M . nilimae sp. n. from Labeo rohita , and M. harpreetae sp. n. from Labeo bata respectively. Spores of M . muralidharani sp. n. measured 13.84 ± 0.049 (13-14) × 4.95-6 (5.35) µm, with two elongated equal sized polar capsules. Spores of M. nilimae sp. n. measured 15.9-17.1 (16.65) µm × 6.2-7.5 (6.9) µm, with two equal petal shaped polar capsules, 9.0-11 (10.4) µm × 3-3.5 (3.16) µm. In contrast to aforementioned two new species, M . harpreetae sp. n. had two unequal polar capsules, 8.7-9.2 (9.149) µm × 2.9-4.0 (3.45) µm and 7.6-8.3 (7.94) µm × 2.8-3.3 (2.9) µm in each spore, 11.4-13.8 (13.2) µm × 4.9-7.8 (6.51) µm.

Severe infections by the protozoan parasite belonging to the genera Myxozoa are causing serious problems in ornamental fish reared in breeding farms. Histopathological study is being used for diagnosis of the severity of diseases. Myxozoan infections result in large scale histopathological damages in different fish tissues. No information is available regarding the histopathological changes of goldfish due to infection with myxozoans. The present study deals with the histopathological changes of the gill, fin, and skin of goldfish, infected with myxozoan parasites along with an ultrastructural study using scanning electron microscope. Several histological alterations have been observed in goldfish, like tissue damage, epithelial hyperplasia, necrosis, anoxia, localized lymphocytic infiltration, excess mucus, cellular necrosis, and epithelial proliferation. The present study revealed the invasion intensified by the occurrence of morphological lesions in the gill, skin, and fin exposed to Myxosporidia, which may lead to respiratory insufficiency in fish and even cause mass mortality.

Trichodiniasis of fishes cause economic losses in the fish industry through mortality and decrease growth rate. Very few studies of these ectoparasites have been made in India. A comprehensive icthyoparasotological survey in some ornamental fish farms of different parts of India has been done since March 2014-May 2015. During the study these trichodinid parasites have been identified from the gills of Oranda Gold Fish (Carassius auratus auratus L.). They are Trichodinella epizootica, Tripartiella viz. Tripartiella bulbosa, Tripartiella copiosa and Tripartiella obtusa. All these parasites have been recorded for the first time from the gills of Oranda Gold Fish (Carassius auratus auratus L.) in India i.e. The paper deals with the diversity and description of ciliophorans parasites of ornamental fish.

Several protozoan parasites have been found infecting the edible oysters, hence deteriorating the meat quality. Protozoan parasites such as, Tetrahymena rostrata and Callimastix equi infested the edible oyster in Sundarbans region, West Bengal, India, are first record from this region. Due to filter feeding habit of the organisms, oysters provides excellent ecological services in regard to efficient cleaning of infectious agents from surrounding water as a potential measure to improve water quality. However, these environmental benefits are associated with public heath risks from contaminated oysters intended for human consumption.

The present study have been conducted to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of crude aqueous and crude methanolic leaf extracts of Murraya koenigii. Infection of ruminants with gastro-intestinal (GI) parasite has become a worldwide problem. The parasite causes economic losses in a variety of ways. Previously sheep producers relied heavily on anti-parasitic drugs to control gastro-intestinal parasites of the flocks. But due to misuse of these drugs the parasites become resistant to drugs. Thus created interest in studying medicinal plants as an alternative source of controlling the GI parasites. Adult motility assay (AMA) and egg hatch assay (EHA) have been done for in vitro study, and faecal egg count reduction (FECR) assay have been done for in vivo study. The in vitro study revealed anthelmintic effects of M. koenigii on Haemonchus contortus as evident from their paralytic condition and/or death at eight hour post exposure in different concentrations (12.5, 25, 50 mg/ml) of aqueous and methanolic extracts which exhibit to be dose-dependent. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of M. koenigii were found to have low percent inhibitory effect on egg hatching. It may be concluded that M. koenigii showed significant anthelmintic activity.

Formation of correct disulfide bonds in the endoplasmic reticulum is a crucial step for folding proteins destined for secretion. Protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) play a central role in this process. We report a previously unidentified, hypervariable family of PDIs that represents the most diverse gene family of oxidoreductases described in a single genus to date. These enzymes are highly expressed specifically in the venom glands of predatory cone snails, animals that synthesize a remarkably diverse set of cysteine-rich peptide toxins (conotoxins). Enzymes in this PDI family, termed conotoxin-specific PDIs, significantly and differentially accelerate the kinetics of disulfide-bond formation of several conotoxins. Our results are consistent with a unique biological scenario associated with protein folding: The diversification of a family of foldases can be correlated with the rapid evolution of an unprecedented diversity of disulfide-rich structural domains expressed by venomous marine snails in the superfamily Conoidea.

Objective: The aim of this study was to study the pathophysiological effects on Channa punctatus due to the nematode parasite Eustrongylides sp., Methods: A total of 250 fish were examined during the period January 2012-2014. Hematological, serum biochemical, histological, and scanning electron microscopic studies were performed on normal and infected hosts to study the effects caused by the nematode., Results: The mean values of red blood corpuscle [RBC] count, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were significantly higher (P<0.01) in noninfected fish, while the values of white blood corpuscle [WBC] count, mean corpuscular volume [MCV], and mean corpuscular hemoglobin [MCH] were significantly higher (P<0.01) in infected fish. In infected fish, the average values of aspartate amminotransferase [AST] (416 UL-1), alanine amminotransferase [ALT] (73.35 UL-1), alkaline phosphatase [ALP] (161.6 mg dl-1), and cholesterol (154.82 mg dl-1) were significantly higher (P<0.01) than those in noninfected fish. Significant differences were also observed in total protein and glucose levels between the infected and noninfected fish. Histological and scanning electron microscopic studies of the host tissues revealed a series of pathological changes and mechanical damage., Conclusion: It can be concluded that Eustrongylides sp. has a significant impact on its host and thus the parameters outlined in the present paper may be employed as tools in monitoring the health status of fish in culture practices.

Surveys on aseptate gregarines in earthworm hosts in different districts of West Bengal state of India revealed the existence of one new species of aseptate gregarine of the genus Nematocystis Hesse, 1909 have been identified from the seminal vesicles of the earthworm, Glyphidrilus tuberosus Stephenson, 1916 in the district of Purba Midnapur, West Bengal of India. Gamonts of the organism are very much elongated, cylindrical, nematoid and without mucron. The terminal end adjacent to the nucleus rounded and the distal end pointed. The gamonts measure 846.45-1031.13 (931.86±70.48) μm in length and 18.40-20.45 (19.43±1.05) μm in width. Nucleus elongated or depressed elliptoid, measures 53.17-63.39 (60.33±3.28) μm in length and 13.29-16.36 (14.15±0.89) μm in width. The gametocysts are slightly ovoid, measuring 110.43-120.65 (114.31±3.44) μm in diameter. Oocysts navicular and measure 9.24-10.39 (9.78±0.40) μm×5.77-6.16 (6.04±0.18) μm. Based on critical analysis and comparison with earlier reported species, the species under discussion established as new one.

In India, more than 104 species of Myxobolus have so far been reported infecting freshwater as well as marine fishes. The study focuses on the description of a new myxosporean species, Myxobolus sp.n PKB 2014 from the gill lamellae of an Indian major carp Labeo rohita. The species have been described on the basis of morphological characterization of the spores, tissue architecture and 18S rDNA sequence data. The plasmodia of Myxobolus sp.n PKB 2014 were round in shape measuring, 50 to 70 μm in diameter and spores were ellipsoidal in frontal view measures 14.7 ± 0.51 μm. The 18S rRNA nucleotide sequence with 806 bp of Myxobolus sp.n PKB 2014 (Accession number KJ652226) clustered phylogenitically with other Myxobolus spp. infecting cyprinid gills with 90-99% similarity. According to the phylogenetic study we concluded that M. wulli was the closest relative having 99% similarity with the species under description but the sequence was distinct in each species which additionally exhibited different morphological features. The infection rate was low to moderate. After through comparison it can be concluded that the species being described here is new to science which is designated as Myxobolus sp.n. PKB 2014.

Myxobolus Bütschli 1882 is an important group of parasitic protozoa infecting a large number of freshwater fish species worldwide. The severity of Myxobolus infection leads to heavy loss in production of fishes. During the survey of the fish parasites, a new species of the genus Myxobolus have been isolated from the gills of a freshwater edible fish Cirrhinus mrigala Hamilton, 1822 from Canning, South 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India which has been described here.

Although acetylcholine is widely utilized in vertebrate nervous systems, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), including the α9α10 subtype, also are expressed in a wide variety of non-neuronal cells. These cell types include cochlear hair cells, adrenal chromaffin cells and immune cells. α9α10 nAChRs present in these cells may respectively play roles in protection from noise-induced hearing loss, response to stress and neuroprotection. Despite these critical functions, there are few available selective ligands to confirm mechanistic hypothesis regarding the role of α9α10 nAChRs. Conus, has been a rich source of ligands for receptors and ion channels. Here, we identified Conus geographus venom as a lead source for a novel α9α10 antagonist. The active component was isolated and the encoding gene cloned. The peptide signal sequence and cysteine arrangement had the signature of the σ-conotoxin superfamily. Previously isolated σ-conotoxin GVIIIA, also from Conus geographus, targets the 5-HT3 receptor. In contrast, αS-GVIIIB blocked the α9α10 nAChR with an IC50 of 9.8 nM, yet was inactive at the 5-HT3 receptor. Pharmacological characterization of αS-GVIIIB shows that it is over 100-fold selective for the α9α10 nAChR compared to other nAChR subtypes. Thus, the S-superfamily represents a novel conotoxin scaffold for flexibly targeting a variety of receptor subtypes. Functional competition studies utilized distinct off-rate kinetics of conotoxins to identify the α10/α9 nAChR interface as the site of αS-GVIIIB binding; this adds to the importance of the (+) face of the α10 rather than the (+) face of the α9 nAChR subunit as critical to binding of α9α10-targeted conotoxins., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The aim of this study was to provide a description of a new haemogregarine, Haemogregarina sundarbanensis n. sp., from mud turtles collected from Sundarban regions, West Bengal, India., Methods: The turtles were collected from fish markets near Canning, South 24-Parganas District, West Bengal. Thin blood films were prepared using the blood drawn from the head and feet. The blood films were then air-dried, fixed in absolute methanol, and stained with Giemsa., Results: The erythrocytic stages could be differentiated into small and large forms. The young gamonts measured 7.896×3.469 μm, microgamonts measured 8.876×4.425 μm, and macrogamonts measured 8.919×4.272 μm. The cytoplasm of the macrogamonts was stained deep blue with Giemsa, and many metachromatic granules are found uniformly distributed. The oval or rounded nucleus was central in position and stained deep red with Giemsa stain, whereas in microgamonts, the nucleus was not at all compact but with a few dispersed chromatin granules., Conclusion: The prevalence of infection was found to be 33.3% (5/15). The infected erythrocytes reveal shape alteration, marginal and atrophic nucleus, and were larger than non-parasitized erythrocytes. The cytoplasm of the infected erythrocytes stained darker than that of the uninfected erythrocytes.

A study has been done to find out the prevalence of different kinds of parasites in Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton 1822) during 2010-2011. It has been found that the temperature variation affects some parasitic infestation over the fish species. It was found that ciliophoran and crustacean parasites are more prevalent from November to February whereas the myxozoan and monogenean parasites are more prevalent from January to April. Considering temperature variation throughout the year it has been inferred that most of the parasitic infections were found between November and April when the temperature range varies from 19 to 26 °C. So from the study it can be concluded that lower temperature elicits the parasitic growth in fishes while the higher temperature retards the growth.

More than 100 species of venomous cone snails (genus Conus) are highly effective predators of fish. The vast majority of venom components identified and functionally characterized to date are neurotoxins specifically targeted to receptors, ion channels, and transporters in the nervous system of prey, predators, or competitors. Here we describe a venom component targeting energy metabolism, a radically different mechanism. Two fish-hunting cone snails, Conus geographus and Conus tulipa, have evolved specialized insulins that are expressed as major components of their venoms. These insulins are distinctive in having much greater similarity to fish insulins than to the molluscan hormone and are unique in that posttranslational modifications characteristic of conotoxins (hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamate) are present. When injected into fish, the venom insulin elicits hypoglycemic shock, a condition characterized by dangerously low blood glucose. Our evidence suggests that insulin is specifically used as a weapon for prey capture by a subset of fish-hunting cone snails that use a net strategy to capture prey. Insulin appears to be a component of the nirvana cabal, a toxin combination in these venoms that is released into the water to disorient schools of small fish, making them easier to engulf with the snail's distended false mouth, which functions as a net. If an entire school of fish simultaneously experiences hypoglycemic shock, this should directly facilitate capture by the predatory snail.

The coastal region of West Bengal is bestowed with a wide range of natural forest and aquatic resources. The estuarine complex is a culmination of the interaction of land, sea and freshwater. It offers diverse specialised habitats such as mangroves, non vegetated mudflats, inter tidal zones and reclaimed areas. Such areas are home to a number of terrestrial, freshwater and marine communities. Edible oyster resources in these regions are Crassostrea gryphoides and Saccostrea cucullata, which are the keystone species found in the intertidal zone and can tolerate huge variation of salinity. These are used as food by local people and marketed to earn cash. The population of this species has been declined due to parasitic infection and pollution. There are many protozoan parasites which infect these oysters causing diseases. During survey period, a protozoan parasite of the genus Cristigera have been observed only from the edible oyster Crassostrea gryphoides collected from Kaikhali and Frasergunj among three selected sites namely Kaikhali, Frasergunj and Digha of West Bengal mainly during monsoon and post-monsoon season. Considering such rare and specific prevalence of Cristigera sp, it may be considered as potential bio-indicator.

Cone snails are highly successful marine predators that use complex venoms to capture prey. At any given time, hundreds of toxins (conotoxins) are synthesized in the secretory epithelial cells of the venom gland, a long and convoluted organ that can measure 4 times the length of the snail's body. In recent years a number of studies have begun to unveil the transcriptomic, proteomic and peptidomic complexity of the venom and venom glands of a number of cone snail species. By using a combination of DIGE, bottom-up proteomics and next-generation transcriptome sequencing the present study identifies proteins involved in envenomation and conotoxin maturation, significantly extending the repertoire of known (poly)peptides expressed in the venom gland of these remarkable animals. We interrogate the molecular and proteomic composition of different sections of the venom glands of 3 specimens of the fish hunter Conus geographus and demonstrate regional variations in gene expression and protein abundance. DIGE analysis identified 1204 gel spots of which 157 showed significant regional differences in abundance as determined by biological variation analysis. Proteomic interrogation identified 342 unique proteins including those that exhibited greatest fold change. The majority of these proteins also exhibited significant changes in their mRNA expression levels validating the reliability of the experimental approach. Transcriptome sequencing further revealed a yet unknown genetic diversity of several venom gland components. Interestingly, abundant proteins that potentially form part of the injected venom mixture, such as echotoxins, phospholipase A2 and con-ikots-ikots, classified into distinct expression clusters with expression peaking in different parts of the gland. Our findings significantly enhance the known repertoire of venom gland polypeptides and provide molecular and biochemical evidence for the compartmentalization of this organ into distinct functional entities.

A cone snail venom peptide, μO§-conotoxin GVIIJ from Conus geographus, has a unique posttranslational modification, S-cysteinylated cysteine, which makes possible formation of a covalent tether of peptide to its target Na channels at a distinct ligand-binding site. μO§-conotoxin GVIIJ is a 35-aa peptide, with 7 cysteine residues; six of the cysteines form 3 disulfide cross-links, and one (Cys24) is S-cysteinylated. Due to limited availability of native GVIIJ, we primarily used a synthetic analog whose Cys24 was S-glutathionylated (abbreviated GVIIJSSG). The peptide-channel complex is stabilized by a disulfide tether between Cys24 of the peptide and Cys910 of rat (r) NaV1.2. A mutant channel of rNaV1.2 lacking a cysteine near the pore loop of domain II (C910L), was >10(3)-fold less sensitive to GVIIJSSG than was wild-type rNaV1.2. In contrast, although rNaV1.5 was >10(4)-fold less sensitive to GVIIJSSG than NaV1.2, an rNaV1.5 mutant with a cysteine in the homologous location, rNaV1.5[L869C], was >10(3)-fold more sensitive than wild-type rNaV1.5. The susceptibility of rNaV1.2 to GVIIJSSG was significantly altered by treating the channels with thiol-oxidizing or disulfide-reducing agents. Furthermore, coexpression of rNaVβ2 or rNaVβ4, but not that of rNaVβ1 or rNaVβ3, protected rNaV1.1 to -1.7 (excluding NaV1.5) against block by GVIIJSSG. Thus, GVIIJ-related peptides may serve as probes for both the redox state of extracellular cysteines and for assessing which NaVβ- and NaVα-subunits are present in native neurons.

Cone snails, genus Conus, are predatory marine snails that use venom to capture their prey. This venom contains a diverse array of peptide toxins, known as conotoxins, which undergo a diverse set of posttranslational modifications. Amidating enzymes modify peptides and proteins containing a C-terminal glycine residue, resulting in loss of the glycine residue and amidation of the preceding residue. A significant fraction of peptides present in the venom of cone snails contain C-terminal amidated residues, which are important for optimizing biological activity. This study describes the characterization of the amidating enzyme, peptidylglycine α-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), present in the venom duct of cone snails, Conus bullatus and Conus geographus. PAM is known to carry out two functions, peptidyl α-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM) and peptidylamido-glycolate lyase (PAL). In some animals, such as Drosophila melanogaster, these two functions are present in separate polypeptides, working as individual enzymes. In other animals, such as mammals and in Aplysia californica, PAM activity resides in a single, bifunctional polypeptide. Using specific oligonucleotide primers and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction we have identified and cloned from the venom duct cDNA library, a cDNA with 49% homology to PAM from A. californica. We have determined that both the PHM and PAL activities are encoded in one mRNA polynucleotide in both C. bullatus and C. geographus. We have directly demonstrated enzymatic activity catalyzing the conversion of dansyl-YVG-COOH to dansyl-YV-NH2 in cloned cDNA expressed in Drosophila S2 cells., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Myxozoan infections result in large scale histopathological features depending on various factors. Earlier studies on pathological changes caused by myxozoan infections in piscine hosts have been reported from different localities. This study is based on the histopathological features caused by the members of genera Myxobolus Bütschli, 1882 and Thelohanellus Kudo, 1933 in the gill and fin tissues of commercially significant minor carps, Labeo calbasu and Labeo gonius of the genus Labeo collected from the four different districts of the north-eastern Indian state of Tripura (latitude 22°51'-24°32'N and longitude 90°10'-92°21'E) spanning over a total geographical area of 10,491 km(2).

Two new species of the genus Trichodina Ehrenberg, 1838, T. silondiata sp. nov. and T. pangasi sp. nov. from the gills of freshwater fish Silonia silondia (Hamilton 1822) and Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton-Buchanan) respectively from the river Ganges of West Bengal are described here. Wet smears of gills and skins were prepared in the field, air dried and impregnated with Klein's dry silver method. In case of S. silondia (Hamilton 1822) 24 out of 146 host fishes were parasitized on the gills. Infestation rate in case of P. pangasius (Hamilton-Buchanan) was not significant. From a total of 86 examined host fish, only seven were parasitized on the gills. The mean diameters of the body of the specimens of T. silondiata sp. nov. and T. pangasi sp. nov. were 32.7-60.6 (46.4 ± 6.3) μm and 38.9-54.1 (44.9 ± 3.0) μm respectively. Taxonomic and morphometric data for these ectoparasitic trichodinids based on wet silver nitrate impregnated specimens are presented.

Tripura is a north-eastern state of India with a total geographical area of 10,491 sq.km. Labeo bata, L. calbasu, L. gonius of the genus Labeo Cuvier and Cirrhinus reba of genus Cirrhinus Oken are the most popular and commercially important native minor carps of the state. During a detailed survey on the protozoan parasites of the minor carps of Tripura, two new species of myxozoan (Myxozoa: Bivalvulida) parasites Myxobolus tripurensis sp.n. and Myxobolus potularis sp.n. were encountered on the gill filaments of the host fishes. Distinctive characteristics of the plasmodia and the spores have been described.

A comprehensive icthyoparasotological survey among estuarine and freshwater fishes of West Bengal, India revealed Trichodinella sunderbanensis sp. nov. and Trichodina acuta Lom, 1961 from an estuarine fish Mystus gulio (Hamilton, 1822) from the Vidyadhari river; Trichodina nandusi sp. nov. from a freshwater fish, Nandus nandus (Hamilton-Buchanan); Chilodonella hexasticha (Kiernik, 1909) Kahl, 1931 from freshwater fishes Labeo rohita (Hamilton, 1822); and Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 from the Rupnarayan river. Taxonomic description of all the species based on wet silver nitrate impregnation method along with additional comments based on scanning electron microscopic descriptions of T. nandusi sp. nov. are also provided in this paper. Prevalence rate, morphometric parameters and comparisons with closely related species are also discussed.