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The results of the current study present a nationally-representative examination of which college students with psychological disorders register for accommodations at their institutions of higher education. Results indicate that students with psychological disorders already receiving treatment via medication and/ or therapy were more likely to register for accommodations at their institution. Results also indicated that students with ADHD, bipolar, eating disorder, personality disorder, and other psychological disorders were all significantly less likely to register for accommodations as compared to students without these disorders. Students with neurodevelopmental disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) were significantly more likely to register for accommodations as compared to students without ASD, which may be the result of less perceived stigma or less concern of individuals with ASD with perceived stigma.

Physical and mechanical restraints and seclusion are currently used as emergency procedures in public schools across the United States. Students who exhibit dangerous, aggressive, or self-injurious behaviors are more likely to be restrained or secluded in school. Since many students with autism spectrum disorder exhibit one or more of these behaviors, they are even more likely to be subjected to these restrictive interventions. Policy on restrictive interventions is not outlined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004, the federal special education law, leaving states to determine their own policies. Issues surrounding current policy and law on restraint and seclusion, as well as recommendations, are discussed.

The purpose of the current study was to determine the probability that a student with a disability not being served by Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) would be expelled. Expulsion data were obtained from the Civil Rights Data Collection produced by the U.S. Office of Civil Rights. The latest data from all 50 states and the District of Columbia for the 2017 to 2018 school year were analyzed. Bayes' Theorem was used to determine this probability based upon existing probabilities and conditional probabilities. Analyses were also conducted by state and ethnicity. Results indicated that 1 in 14 of expelled students is likely to have an unserved disability under IDEA but variability according to race/ethnicity nationwide and by state was observed. Students who were White were the least likely to be an unserved student with a disability under IDEA among those expelled. The findings encourage investigation into the intersection of variables, especially the importance of including disability status and ethnicity when explaining disparate and punitive discipline. Practitioners, especially school psychologists, work at this intersection and can influence both special education identification and discipline practices.

We examined differences in the receipt and delivery of extended school year (ESY) services in the United States by locale as being rural, urban, or suburban. We found that there were significant differences in the percentage of students receiving ESY services according to locale, with rural local education agencies (LEAs) having a significantly lower percentage of students receiving ESY services. Additionally, we found that special education directors perceived the number of students receiving ESY services as generally being "about right" for their LEA. We also found that urban special education directors were significantly more likely to report that there should be less students receiving ESY services while rural special education directors were less likely to report this. We then found that rural LEAs generally reported providing significantly fewer types of ESY services offered than urban or suburban LEAs. Finally, we found that urban LEAs reported significantly higher attendance rates of students who attended ESY services as compared with rural LEAs.

Background: Previous research has shown that post-secondary collegiate vocational educational programs often have positive effects on employment outcomes for young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Aims: Using secondary data of a program in the United States collected over several years, we examined which intervention components of a postsecondary education transition program predicted subsequent employment for young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Materials & Methods: The sample consisted of 56 individuals that participated in a transition-services collegiate program; Crossing Points, University of Alabama. Results: Results were able to robustly indicate that acquiring job-specific skills was a much better predictor than global measures of intellectual or adaptive behaviour. Additionally, survival curve analyses as an innovative approach to this population showed that there was a positive relation between the number of job-specific training sessions and eventual community employment. Discussion: Results are discussed in relation to a historical parallel movement to expand inclusion of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities in the least restrictive educational setting for primary and secondary public education years. Conclusion: In conclusion, the results of the current study suggest positive findings with job-skills training both specific and general. [Transition and Postsecondary Programs for Students with Intellectual Disabilities provided funding for this report.]

This article reports on a pilot study of the "Integrated Literacy Study Group," a digitally delivered professional learning intervention to prepare elementary school teachers to provide evidence-based reading instruction and behavioral strategies to students with or are at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Using broadcast methods, we recruited 72 teachers across five states in the western United States to participate in the randomized controlled trial. Intervention teachers, relative to controls, made significant gains in self-efficacy and use of the reading and behavioral strategies learned in the professional learning program. Students with or at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders served by participating teachers made significant improvements in academic competence and engagement. Teacher professional learning can improve teacher knowledge of evidence-based reading and behavioral strategies for students with (or at risk for) emotional and behavioral disorders, teacher self-efficacy, and teacher practice, with positive impacts on student early literacy and academic competence.

Background: Mock or practice interviews have become a typical tool for transition programs for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Method: We examined what interview skills were most associated with subsequent employment for individuals intellectual and developmental disabilities via practice interviews. The likelihood of employment was measured as a function of whether the interviewer responded that they would hire the individual. Results: Results indicate that the following job interview skills were considered most important were: sits still and straight; understandable speech; good posture; appropriate voice; and appropriate handshake. Conclusions: As these potential employers had hired individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, we suggest that their feedback would be particularly relevant.

Performance for three independent living tasks were examined via task analyses. Given the relatively small sample size (n = 56) of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, we simulated 1000 replications based upon observed results using Monte Carlo techniques. The results of the current study suggest that: (1) adaptive behavior was more related to task performance than IQ; and (2) after statistically controlling for adaptive behavior, task performance was influenced by the first step. Task performance appear to be over-estimated with the inclusion of the first step.

Progress monitoring data are central to making informed decisions on intervention intensification for struggling learners. The general outcome measure (GOM) of curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency (CBM-R) has been found to correlate with high-stakes assessment; however, data are highly variable, resulting in decisions that must be made 15 weeks after implementation of intervention. Recent researchers have recommended the use of both GOM and specific subskill mastery measurement (SSMM) to overcome the challenges presented with the use of GOM alone, but research on the efficacy of this approach is limited. Using Bayesian and ordinary least squares regression, we compared the GOM of CBM-R with SSMM slopes for words read correctly per minute (wcpm) per week at 5, 7, and 12 weeks, and explored the relation of the respective slopes with subsequent standardized assessment tools for struggling upper elementary students receiving word reading intervention. We found that the SSMM had a similar slope to that noted in prior research (i.e., [beta] = 1.46 wcpm per week). This slope was significant and related to future standardized assessment outcomes across the various time points. The slope for CBM-R was not significant or related to future assessment outcomes. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

We examined the association of students' ability to transition on a daily basis (horizontal transitions) as reported by teachers with academic achievement as mediated by the summer Extended School Year (ESY) services received. Transitions from summer break to re-entry in the fall are referred to as a vertical transition. We examined these relationships via structural equation modeling techniques using multi-group modeling with respect to students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) versus students without IEPs. Among students with IEPs, increased ability to transition was significantly associated with increased academic achievement across time. The receipt of summer ESY services was strongly and significantly associated with increased academic achievement among students with IEPs. The receipt of summer ESY services was also significantly associated with increased ability to transition for these students with IEPs. This ability to transition may be even more impacted by the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has disrupted learning for many school children.

There is no national study examining the rate of enrollment of students with disabilities in charter schools. We examined whether students with disabilities were significantly less likely to enroll in charter schools as compared to non-charter public schools accounting for state level variation using data for the entire national population. We utilized data from the Civil Rights Data Collection under the U.S. Department of Education for the 2011-2012 and 2013-2014 academic years. These nationwide and contemporary data provided school-level numbers of students with disabilities receiving special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and charter school status. We performed hierarchical linear modeling to examine for differences in the percentages of students with disabilities under IDEA between charter and non-charter schools, which revealed significantly less students with disabilities enrolled in charter schools at the national and state level. Additionally, we identified and ranked states according to the degree of discrepancy in the percentages of students with disabilities under IDEA between charter and non-charter schools.

Retention of administrators is related to student achievement, but little is known about factors related to the retention of special education directors. The authors examine whether educational credentials, certifications, and number of years served are related to the number of years served as local education agency special education director.

Extended school year (ESY) services has been an understudied area of special education research. There is limited information available regarding ESY practices by local education agencies (LEAs) in determining eligibility as well as who receives what types of services. We surveyed special education directors across the nation to examine ESY practices by LEAs. Most notably, approximately two out of three special education directors (63%) reported that ESY services were only received by students in self-contained classrooms in their LEA. These LEAs that had no students outside of a self-contained classroom receiving ESY services also had a significantly lower percentage of students receiving ESY services as a whole. We recommend that this practice be discouraged as it effectively excludes students in inclusive settings who could benefit from ESY services and can steer parents away from inclusive placements if ESY services in the future will cease.

School resource officers' (SROs) presence (e.g., engagement in patrol, carrying firearms, etc.) and prevention (e.g., mentoring, teaching) roles have not been distinguished in investigations of SROs' association with student outcomes. A model predicting nonviolent incidents and serious violent incidents reported to police from SRO presence and prevention roles while controlling for limits in mental health availability, teacher training, and school problems was fit to an archival dataset of 1529 school administrators' responses to the School Survey on Crime and Safety (SSCOS). SRO prevention significantly predicted lower numbers of nonviolent incidents reported to police ([beta] = -0.28) and SRO presence significantly predicted higher numbers of nonviolent ([beta] = 0.51) and serious violent ([beta] = 0.24) incidents reported to police in the high school sample. SRO presence and SRO prevention were not significantly associated with either nonviolent or serious violent incidents reported to police in the middle level sample. Greater acknowledgement of limitations in mental health service availability was associated with reports of school problems across samples, and school problems were significantly associated with higher numbers of nonviolent and serious violent incidents reported to police. Results suggest that investment in the SRO prevention role over presence is needed.

The purpose of the present study was first to investigate whether both teacher-reported classroom aggression (ATT) and teachers' interaction with school shooting media (ISSM) are predictors of teachers' secondary trauma related to school shootings (STSS) and to second, consider how participation in lockdown drills may moderate these relationships. Two measures were created to understand the levels of aggression teachers report occurs in their classrooms and to understand how teachers interact with media related to school shootings. Both ISSM and ATT were associated with higher levels of STSS. Lockdown drills did not appear to interact with these relationships to either strengthen or weaken them. Considering the importance of teachers' well-being and how it influences their ability to be effective teachers, continued investigation is warranted.

Extended school year (ESY) services refer to those special education services received by students during the summer break. These services are needed for those students who receive special education services who would otherwise regress and not readily recoup skills when returning to school. Identifying students who should receive extended school year services is not clear cut and guidelines are the result of a patchwork from case law. This study assessed state (n = 13) and respective local (n = 128) directors of special education on the importance of better determining eligibility for extended school year services. Findings show that state and local special education directors were split with regard to whether there was a need for a screening instrument. However, state and respective local special education directors' responses from the same state were not related to one another. Additionally, local special education directors who reported a need for a screening instrument also reported lower percentages of students who received extended school year services. The results of the current study provide evidence that assistance is needed to determine eligibility for ESY services for students receiving special education services. Although state and local directors of special education did not unanimously agree or necessarily agree with each other in their respective states, results do indicate some need to develop a screening instrument to determine eligibility for ESY services.

The current study examined 2 sets of variables associated with parents prematurely exiting early intervention services for their child. The first set consisted of the variables predictive of premature parent withdrawal, and the second set consisted of variables predictive of a parent and child being dismissed from early intervention services because of failure in being able to contact them. This study represents the first empirical examination of variables associated with parents prematurely exiting early intervention services despite having children who continued to qualify for services.

The current study evaluated the validity and reliability of the SCARED on a Native American child population. Results suggest excellent internal consistency for the total score. The hierarchical model best fit the data. Overall the SCARED is a valid tool for identifying Native American children at-risk for developing anxiety disorders.

AbstractThe current study examined educator-reported frequency of Extended School Year (ESY) services recommendation and receipt and the variation in educator perceptions as to the recommendation and receipt of ESY services. Findings suggest that educator roles are associated with differences in the perceived receipt of ESY services. Self-contained teachers and specialists reported higher percentages of students who were recommended for ESY services that subsequently received those services as compared to inclusion and resource teachers. Results also indicated that self-contained teachers were more likely to perceive that students outside of a self-contained setting received ESY services while resource teachers were more likely to perceive these students as not receiving ESY services outside of a self-contained setting. It is posited that educational placement should not dictate the receipt of ESY services but it appears that this may be inadvertently occurring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical restraint is an emergency procedure restricting the movement of an individual and is used in events where students pose an imminent threat of physical harm to themselves or others. Students with disabilities are subjected to these procedures seven times more than typically developing students. Over the past decade, there has been substantial policy reform on the use of restraint; however, policies still vary across the country. Additionally, research on experiences of the use of and policy on restraint in school settings is incredibly limited. The current study expands the body of literature by investigating teachers' experiences, and factors associated with experiences, of restraint events and district policy utilizing a multiple-methods survey design. One hundred eighty Prekindergarten through 12th-grade teachers working in a variety of school settings across the country completed a self-report online survey. Results revealed variability in experiences of restraint events and school district policies. While most participants reported following the district policy as written, level of education significantly impacted teachers' adhering to the policy, wherein those with higher levels of education were less likely to follow the policy. Implications for policy and practice are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the underidentification of students with disabilities for gifted education programs, otherwise referred to as twice-exceptional students. This study utilized data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011 (ECLS-K). We estimated that approximately 17% to 18% more students with disabilities should have been identified for a gifted education program as having statistically similar achievement scores to those students without disabilities in gifted education programs. Alternatively stated, students with disabilities should make up 10.8% of gifted programs, or about 1 in 9 students in gifted programs should be twice-exceptional. Students with disabilities who were male, non-White, low-income, and indicating more internalizing problem behaviors were more likely to not be identified for a gifted education program despite having similar achievement scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of a pilot program to provide transition services for high school seniors with disabilities via one-on-one mentoring services over the course of an academic year were examined. Results indicate significantly improved attitudes toward requesting accommodations over the course of the nine month program. These results suggest positive outcomes associated with the pilot program including increased application and subsequent enrollment to postsecondary education over and above national estimates. Information highlighting aspects of the program are provided including the positive preliminary results of the program. The paper concludes with a section on lessons learned and future adjustments in order to provide some practical program guidance for individuals who anticipate beginning a similar program.

Institutional distance education goals reflective of policy can have an impact on practice. These goals have been noted as possibly being associated with improving access and outcomes for students with disabilities. The purpose of this study is to re-examine the association of institutional distance education goals with the frequency in which students with disabilities request accommodations in courses offered at a distance; it consists of a nationally representative sample of institutions of higher education. Results indicate a positive and significant relationship between institutional distance education goals and the frequency with which students with disabilities request accommodations in online courses. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

College students with disabilities develop and utilize strategies to facilitate their learning experiences due to their unique academic needs. Using a semi-structured interview technique to collect data and a technique based in grounded theory to analyze this data, the purpose of this study was to discern the meaning of disclosure for college students with disabilities in relation to the strategies they invoke while seeking accommodations. The study revealed three underlying themes common to the accommodation-seeking strategies of the participants who were academically successful college students with disabilities. These themes include: scripting disclosure of one's disability; negotiating accommodations with faculty; and downplaying one's disability status.

Individuals who are self-regulated in their learning appear to achieve more positive academic outcomes than individuals who do not exhibit self-regulated learning behaviors. We suggest that distinct profiles of self-regulated learning behaviors exist across learners. In turn, these profiles appear to be associated with significantly different academic outcomes. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether profiles for self-regulated learning skills and strategies exist among learners. To achieve this purpose, we conducted two studies using two different samples. We administered the Online Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire (OLSQ), a 24-item scale with a 5-point Likert-type response format, to students enrolled in online degree programs at a large, public university located in the Southwestern United States. The OSLQ consists of six subscale constructs, including environment structuring, goal setting, time management, help seeking, task strategies, and self-evaluation. Latent class analyses were performed with participant subscale scores from the OSLQ. Our results indicate the presence of five, distinct profiles of self-regulated learning replicated across both study samples: super self-regulators, competent self-regulators, forethought-endorsing self-regulators, performance/reflection self-regulators, and non- or minimal self-regulators. Results also indicate that individuals differ significantly in their academic achievement according to their profile membership; for example, minimal and disorganized profiles of self-regulated learning are both associated with similar, poorer academic outcomes (e.g., lower GPAs). These profiles in self-regulated learning may be viewed as contributing to the development of theory by elucidating how exactly individuals are and are not self-regulated in their learning. The authors suggest future research directions. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

Self-regulatory skills have been associated with positive outcomes for learners. In the current study, we examined the self-regulatory skills of students who are first-generation online learners over the course of their first semester of online instruction. The purpose of this study is to determine whether the online self-regulatory skills of learners changed across time as associated with being immersed in their first online learning environment. The results of the current study indicate no significant differences in the online self-regulatory skills of learners across time. Results suggest that environmental factors such as being immersed in an online learning environment for the first time is not, in and of itself, associated with the development of self-regulatory skills of online learners. We conclude that the design of online courses needs to consider ways of developing self-regulatory skills as these skills are not automatically developed with students' online learning experiences. (Contains 3 tables.)

Resilience refers to positive adaptation in the face of present or past adversity. It is the "ordinary magic" that rises from the minds of children and their families as they interact with their communities. Gonzales (2003) defined three major components of Resiliency Theory: (1) risk factors; (2) protective factors; and (3) developmental assets. "Risk factors" include low socioeconomic status, dropping out, participation in violent activities, recent divorce, neglect, poverty, teenage pregnancy, and teenage parenthood. ", like participation in college preparation, working with a mentor, or taking part in internship programs. Developmental assets also include behaviors like volunteering in the community and leading organizations, as well as possessing values like delaying gratification and valuing diversity. Finally, a key tenet of Resiliency Theory is a focus on what actually works in students' lives, instead of focusing on what has not worked in their lives (e.g., poverty status, at-risk behaviors, poor performance, and poor school environment). The American Psychological Association's (APA) Task Force Protective factors" help reduce the impact of risk factors, and they include support from family, friends, teachers, and community. Gonzales profiled these supportive relationships as having the following characteristics: (1) caring with high expectations; (2) a presence that produces a sense of belonging; and (3) guidance focused on increasing self-esteem. "Developmental assets" are the third aspect of resilient positive adaptation. These are behaviors and opportunities in students' lives that help them adapt to new contexts. Typically, these factors relate directly to successon Resilience and Strength in Black Children and Adolescents reported that increasingly the study of resilience is being driven by ecological models that see resilience as multilayered, including individual, environmental, and sociohistorical experiences. However, the APA report indicated that the ethnic and cultural experiences of African American youth have been left out of many of these studies. Therefore, it is important to examine the resilience ecology of students from different ethnicities and cultures who might benefit from gifted education. The focus of this study was to create a descriptive profile of African American millennials who might benefit from gifted education. The authors based the selection of variables on Resiliency Theory and on Renzulli's (1978) three-ring model of giftedness. (Contains 6 tables.)

This study sought to a better understanding of the construct of problem solving in technology-rich environments and the effect of literacy and numeracy on problem solving. Data used in this study were drawn from Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies US data which includes 5010 completed cases and a total of 1326 variables. The assessment of literacy, numeracy and problem-solving competencies were administrated using computer-based approaches. The result of the study showed that adults with higher numeracy and literacy competencies were more likely to have higher level of problem-solving skills. The results of the analyses also revealed that solution latency (i.e. time) were an important factor influencing problem-solving skills. This study indicates that basic mathematical skills are essential for solving problems that require interpersonal communication, computer and software knowledge, planning, and organising. The findings from this study provide several implications for researchers, educators, teachers and policymakers.

The current study examined whether the parental practice of delayed kindergarten entrance, also known as academic red-shirting, was associated with gains in academic achievement among children with learning disabilities. Results indicate no significant differences in the academic achievement among children with learning disabilities who were delayed in their kindergarten entrance and those who entered on time. A discussion of special education intervention services and future research concludes the study. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

The purpose of the current study was to examine barriers, if any, reported by special education directors to providing extended school year (ESY) services. Results indicate four barriers to providing ESY services listed in order of importance by special education directors: difficulty in finding qualified personnel to work over the summer, determining eligibility for ESY services, compliance of parents, and limited financial resources to provide ESY services. Rural special education directors reported the barrier of difficulty in finding qualified personnel significantly more often than nonrural directors. Rural special education directors also reported significantly more barriers to providing ESY services in general.

Richman et al. ("J Appl Behav Anal" 48:131-152, 2015) completed a meta-analytic analysis of single-case experimental design data on noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) for the treatment of problem behavior exhibited by individuals with developmental disabilities. Results showed that (1) NCR produced very large effect sizes for reduction in problem behavior, (2) NCR implemented with the functional reinforcer resulted in a slightly larger effect size compared to NCR using nonfunctional reinforcers, and (3) schedule thinning for the delivery of reinforcers typically produced temporary and modest increases in levels of problem behavior. The purpose of the current study was to conduct follow-up analyses to determine whether treatment implementation setting, topography, or the function of problem behavior influenced the treatment effect size for problem behavior exhibited by individuals with developmental disabilities. Follow-up analyses showed that NCR effect sizes were very similar across inpatient and outpatient settings and across aggression and property destruction versus self-injurious behaviors. Results showed that NCR effect size for treatment of problem behavior maintained by a form of social reinforcement was slightly greater than problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. Results are discussed in terms of applying NCR in school settings as an initial treatment for problem behaviors that can interfere with academic, adaptive, and vocational skill acquisition for students with developmental disabilities.

The current meta-analysis examines the previous research on the utility of the Social Communication Questionnaire as a screening instrument for autism spectrum disorder. Previously published reports have highlighted the inconsistencies between Social Communication Questionnaire-screening results and formal autism spectrum disorder diagnoses. The variations in accuracy resulted in some researchers questioning the validity of the Social Communication Questionnaire. This study systematically examined the accuracy of the Social Communication Questionnaire as a function of the methodological decisions made by researchers screening for autism spectrum disorder over the last 15 years. Findings from this study suggest that the Social Communication Questionnaire is an acceptable screening instrument for autism spectrum disorder (area under the curve = 0.885). Variations in methodological decisions, however, greatly influenced the accuracy of the Social Communication Questionnaire in screening for autism spectrum disorder. Of these methodological variations, using the Current instead of the Lifetime version of the Social Communication Questionnaire resulted in the largest detrimental effect (d = -3.898), followed by using the Social Communication Questionnaire with individuals younger than 4 years of age (d = -2.924) and relying upon convenience samples (d = -4.828 for clinical samples, -2.734 for convenience samples, and -1.422 for community samples). Directions for future research and implications for using the Social Communication Questionnaire to screen for autism spectrum disorder are discussed.