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Simple random-sampling resolutions of the raven paradox relevantly diverge from scientific practice. We develop a stratified random-sampling model, yielding a better fit and apparently rehabilitating simple random sampling as a legitimate idealization. However, neither accommodates a second concern, the objection from potential bias. We develop a third model that crucially invokes causal considerations, yielding a novel resolution that handles both concerns. This approach resembles Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE) and relates the generalization’s confirmation to confirmation of an associated law. We give it an objective Bayesian formalization and discuss the compatibility of Bayesianism and IBE.

Patients with cancer are currently prioritized in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination programs globally, which includes administration of mRNA vaccines. Cytokine release syndrome (CRS) has not been reported with mRNA vaccines and is an extremely rare immune-related adverse event of immune checkpoint inhibitors. We present a case of CRS that occurred 5 d after vaccination with BTN162b2 (tozinameran)—the Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA COVID-19 vaccine—in a patient with colorectal cancer on long-standing anti-PD-1 monotherapy. The CRS was evidenced by raised inflammatory markers, thrombocytopenia, elevated cytokine levels (IFN-γ/IL-2R/IL-18/IL-16/IL-10) and steroid responsiveness. The close temporal association of vaccination and diagnosis of CRS in this case suggests that CRS was a vaccine-related adverse event; with anti-PD1 blockade as a potential contributor. Overall, further prospective pharmacovigillence data are needed in patients with cancer, but the benefit–risk profile remains strongly in favor of COVID-19 vaccination in this population., A rare case of cytokine release syndrome in a patient on anti-PD-1 blockade that was likely related to BNT162b2 vaccination supports prospective monitoring of patients with cancer after COVID-19 vaccine administration.

Patients with cancer have higher COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. Here we present the prospective CAPTURE study, integrating longitudinal immune profiling with clinical annotation. Of 357 patients with cancer, 118 were SARS-CoV-2 positive, 94 were symptomatic and 2 died of COVID-19. In this cohort, 83% patients had S1-reactive antibodies and 82% had neutralizing antibodies against wild type SARS-CoV-2, whereas neutralizing antibody titers against the Alpha, Beta and Delta variants were substantially reduced. S1-reactive antibody levels decreased in 13% of patients, whereas neutralizing antibody titers remained stable for up to 329 days. Patients also had detectable SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells and CD4+ responses correlating with S1-reactive antibody levels, although patients with hematological malignancies had impaired immune responses that were disease and treatment specific, but presented compensatory cellular responses, further supported by clinical recovery in all but one patient. Overall, these findings advance the understanding of the nature and duration of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in patients with cancer.

We present a case of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) that occurred five days after vaccination with BTN162b2 (tozinameran), an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine, in a patient with colorectal cancer on long-standing anti-PD-1 monotherapy. The CRS was evidenced by raised inflammatory markers, thrombocytopenia, elevated cytokine levels (IFN-y/IL-2R/IL-18/IL-16/IL-10), and steroid responsiveness.

SUMMARYThere is a pressing need to characterise the nature, extent and duration of immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in cancer patients and inform risk-reduction strategies and preserve cancer outcomes. CAPTURE is a prospective, longitudinal cohort study of cancer patients and healthcare workers (HCWs) integrating longitudinal immune profiling and clinical annotation. We evaluated 529 blood samples and 1051 oronasopharyngeal swabs from 144 cancer patients and 73 HCWs and correlated with >200 clinical variables. In patients with solid cancers and HCWs, S1-reactive and neutralising antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 were detectable five months post-infection. SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell responses were detected, and CD4+T-cell responses correlated with S1 antibody levels. Patients with haematological malignancies had impaired but partially compensated immune responses. Overall, cancer stage, disease status, and therapies did not correlate with immune responses. These findings have implications for understanding individual risks and potential effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in the cancer population.

Boris Kment's Modality and Explanatory Reasoning provides an account of metaphysical modality in which explanatory considerations take centre stage. First, he is not content to provide a metaphysic...

Administering involuntary medications to minors to restore competence to stand trial is a decision highlighting the ambiguities of current legal standards and evolving clinical practice. Overriding the objections of incompetent youth requires the application of case law associated with the state’s interests in prosecuting adults, which may not address how the potential side effects of antipsychotic medications impact adolescent development. Parents’ investment in their children’s wellbeing is not formally recognized in such situations; however, parental consent may be given weight by the juvenile court. The two cases presented here describe how conflicts arising from legal and clinical contingencies were resolved.

Quality Assurance of ultrasound systems is necessary to ensure the reliability of results and to check for deterioration in performance; a number of bodies have produced guidelines. Testing has traditionally been the responsibility of Medical Physics Departments but the important role of sonographers has been recognised and recent publications have included tests to be performed by ultrasound users. Since there are differences in approach between these publications the BMUS QA Working Party was established to provide a consistent set of guidelines specifically for sonographers. Three levels of testing are recommended, to include infection control and inspections for scanner and probe damage, basic display checks and further tests to assess drop-out, sensitivity and noise. These tests should form part of a programme that includes more comprehensive testing at longer intervals, perhaps by a Medical Physics Department.

I propose a novel solution to Goodman's new riddle of induction, one on which aspects of scientific methodology preclude significant confirmation of the Grue Hypothesis. The solution appeals to intuitive constraints on the confirmation of explanatory hypotheses, and can be construed as a fragment of a theory of Inference to the Best Explanation. I give it an objective Bayesian formalisation, and contrast it with Goodman's and Sober's solutions, which make appeal to both methodological and non-methodological considerations, and those of Jackson, Godfrey-Smith, and White, on which explanatory considerations play a very different role.

This guidance is intended to encourage best practice among researchers into ultrasound bio-effects in terms of how they determine and report the exposure conditions used in their studies. It covers both diagnostic and therapeutic applications of ultrasound and is intended to be useful to the researchers themselves, to the review boards of ethical and funding committees and to the editors and reviewers of scientific journals. Recommendations are made for reporting formats, depending on the information available, and level of the study.

Advocates and opponents of Humean Supervenience (HS) have neglected a crucial feature of nomic explanation: laws can explain by generating descriptions of possibilities. Dretske and Armstrong have opposed HS by arguing that laws construed as Humean regularities cannot explain, but their arguments fail precisely because they neglect to consider this generating role of laws. Humeans have dismissed the intuitive violations of HS manifested by John Carroll's Mirror Worlds as erroneous, but distinguishing the laws' generating role from the non-Humean notion that laws govern undermines such responses, and renews the force of Carroll's critique of HS. However, it also undermines the assumption that HS is constitutive of Humeanism. The generating role of laws readily motivates a non-reductive Humeanism that violates HS. An account is sketched, and is seen to provide a novel explanation of the governing intuition.

Infrared thermography (IRT), a non-invasive temperature measurement technique has been investigated and developed for use with cyclic high temperature loading. The technique utilises an infrared thermography camera (IRTC) and RollsRoyce HE23 black thermal paint (TP). The TP is applied to a test piece surface to provide a stable emissivity value and accurate temperature measurement for the duration of thermal cycling. Spot welded type N thermocouples (NTCs) are utilised for accuracy validation of the IRTC technique for both temperature monitoring and temperature control. An evaluation of the technique has been employed upon diverse test specimen geometries and alloy compositions at temperatures between 100 and 700°C. Unfavourable effects during cyclic temperature measurement such as thermocouple shadowing are also highlighted and quantified. In combination with HE23 TP, IRTC control and measurement has proven accurate to within ±2°C NTCs, a validated cyclic high temperature measurement technique.

Faced with the paradox of undermining futures, Humeans have resigned themselves to accounts of chance that severely conflict with our intuitions. However, such resignation is premature: The problem is Humean Supervenience (HS), not Humeanism. This paper develops a projectivist Humeanism on which chance claims are understood as normative, rather than fact stating. Rationality constraints on the cotenability of norms and factual claims ground a factual-normative worlds semantics that, in addition to solving the Frege-Geach problem, delivers the intuitive set of possibilia for each chance law. Hence, the account does not entail HS, and the paradox does not arise. A confirmation theory is developed, and the Principal Principle is justified.

A novel motivation for a Humean projectivist construal of our concept of scientific law is provided. The analysis is partially developed and used to explain intuitions that are problematic for a Humean reductionist construal of lawhood. A possible non-Humean rejoinder is discussed and rejected. In an appendix, further intuitions that are problematic for Humean reductionists are explained projectively.

Acceptance of Humean Supervenience and thereductive Humean analyses that entail it leadsto a litany of inadequately explained conflictswith our intuitions regarding laws andpossibilities. However, the non-reductiveHumeanism developed here, on which law claimsare understood as normative rather than factstating, can accommodate those intuitions. Rational constraints on such norms provide aset of consistency relations that ground asemantics formulated in terms offactual-normative worlds, solving theFrege-Geach problem of construing unassertedcontexts. This set of factual-normative worldsincludes exactly the intuitive sets ofnomologically possible worlds associated witheach possible set of laws. The extension ofthe semantics to counterfactual and subjunctiveconditionals is sketched. Potential objectionsinvolving subjectivity, mind-dependence, andnon-factuality are discussed.

Slug problems have increased in frequency as conservation tillage has become a more widely adapted practice for production of corn, Zea mays (L.), and soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, in the Midwest. Because of the increasing concern about slug damage to these crops, we initiated studies to aid growers in management of this serious pest. Slug populations were sampled in conservation-tillage fields in seven counties in Ohio from 1994–1996 to determine the species that were present in field crops and to gain insights into their life histories and damage potential. Four slug species were collected in numbers sufficient to be considered of potential economic importance. The predominant species in population size and geographic range were Deroceras reticulatum (Müller), followed closely by D. leave (Müller). Both species were common in most fields. The third most numerous slug species was Arion subfuscus (Drapamaud). Although this species was found in fewer fields, it was often collected in very large numbers. The fourth slug. A. fasciatus (Nilsson), was found only in two counties. We observed juvenile D. reticulatum causing the most damage by their feeding in late-May and in June. Damage caused by the other species was not as evident, with the possible exception of A. subfuscus causing stand loss in soybeans.

The provision of Ultrasound Quality Assurance (QA) across the UK is variable. In some areas, a comprehensive service is provided, usually by a Medical Physics Department, but many clinical ultrasound services have no formal QA programme. Where there is no formal QA programme, it might be expected that ultrasound users would report and ensure repair of obvious faults, such as mechanical damage or “drop-out”, but anecdotal evidence from around the country tells us that this is not always the case. On many modern scanners, faults are masked by advanced processing. Professional bodies in the UK and around the world1–4 have been providing and updating ultrasound QA guidelines for over 35 years, but the implementation of QA has been inconsistent. There are many possible reasons for this inconsistency, including the lack of a legislative requirement, availability of Medical Physics services, sonography workload and a view that formal QA is unnecessary. Legislation requires QA for other imaging modalities, where ionising radiations are used. The legislation is designed to protect staff, patients and members of the public from the effects of radiation, but enforcing bodies expect QA to include assessment of image quality as well as radiation dose. Medical Physics Departments do not all have expertise in ultrasound, and the distribution of Ultrasound Physicists around the country changes with retirements and career development moves. The most stable and consistent physics support for ultrasound seems to be where services are provided on a regional, rather than local, basis. Sonography workload is a growing issue for QA services, affecting both sonographer engagement and access to equipment. The fairly widely held view that QA is unnecessary is challenged by the facts. In addition to anecdotal reports of failure of some users to report and remedy obvious faults, there is increasing evidence in the literature of the efficacy of formal QA programmes identifying more subtle deterioration of imaging performance.5–9 Sonographers should note that in signing off a report, they are certifying that their equipment is fit for purpose. The importance of QA for diagnostic equipment has been recognised in the UK by the Department of Health,10 the Care Quality Commission,11 the National Health Service Litigation Authority12 and the Medical and Healthcare Products Regulatory Authority.13 It will be a condition of contracts in the reforming National Health Service and is mandatory for ultrasound equipment used in NHS Screening Programmes.2,14,15 The new emphasis on user testing in a number of recent QA guidelines1–4 gives sonographers the opportunity to establish their own QA programme, even where there is no physics support for further testing and no test equipment. The tests are not time consuming, and some elements will already be carried out in departments complying with local infection control and equipment management requirements. The aim of the QA guidelines published in this issue is to empower sonographers to take a leading role in demonstrating the consistency of performance of their equipment for the benefit of their patients. Please take up the challenge.

The study of the stress-wave propagation in solids is of particular interest in nondestructive testing of materials. Here we present a high speed photographic insight into the acoustic transients associated with the interaction of a Q-switched Nd-YAG laser at a liquid-solid boundary. Two types of polymer were used in the study, namely polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) and a plwtoelastic material, polycarbonate (PC). A series of photographs of the interactions were recorded using schlieren photography, Mach-Zehnder inter-ferometry, photoelastic fringe recording, and a combination of these techniques and the different ivave structures identified.

A low-energy, Q-switched Nd YAG laser has been used to generate shock waves in air, liquids and solids and high time- and space-resolution optical interferometry then leads to the pressure field in the breakdown zone.

A Q switched Nd-YAG laser has been used to generate ultrasonic waves at air-solid boundaries. The high energy and power density at the laser focus leads to the formation of a plasma on the surface of the solid. The solid surface is heated to the vaporization point and the combined effects of the laser plasma and surface ablation lead to shock waves in the air and a high pressure transient acoustic wave in the solid. This laser generated ultrasound is being used to study material properties and is used in non-destructive testing. Laser ultrasound has been studied using a range of transducers to confirm the thermoelastic and ablation regimes. But in general these techniques do not give the spatial as well as temporal behavior of the waves. Schlieren photography using a dye laser has been used to study the propagation of the various wave types at an air-solid boundary and Mach Zehnder interferometry has been used to determine the absolute pressure in transparent solids. The pressure has been measured as a function of time and the radial dependence is in excellent agreement with the direct pressure transducer measurements of other workers in the ablation regime.

The interaction of laser radiation with materials can lead to the generation of thermal and acoustic transients. If the laser pulse is of short duration and high power as in the case of a Q switched Nd YAG laser, then shock waves may be formed with fast rising pressure fronts. The optical diagnostics of laser generated sound waves therefore requires high spatial, approximately 10 micrometers , and high temporal, approximately 10 ns, resolution, in order to make quantitative measurements. A nitrogen laser pumped dye laser with a pulse length of 0.4 ns has been used as the light source for a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The interferometer was modified to enable dynamic photoelastic interferograms to be taken. Recording was by means of a CCD video camera and computer controlled digitizing frame grabber. This system has been employed to study laser generated waves at water-polymer boundaries and the diffraction of ultrasound by defects in the solid material. The isochromatic fringe patterns, together with an approximate Abel inversion procedure, allow the radial pressure distribution in the polycarbonate test samples to be calculated. The ultimate aim is to obtain the near field diffraction coefficients for use in NDT modeling.© (1993) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

A Q-switched Nd:YAG laser had been used to damage perspex. Damage was initiated on the entry face and within the bulk of the material. Acoustic transients or shock waves were produced centered on the laser focus and high spatial and temporal resolution Mach Zehnder interferometry was used to measure the acoustic pressure field associated with the interaction. The well defined laser pulse had an energy of 4.6 +/- 0.2 mJ with a corresponding energy fluence of 260 J cm-2. This is approximately an order of magnitude larger than the bulk damage threshold at 1.06 mm. Abel inversion and integration of the interferograms gave the total energy dissipated in the polymer in the form of acoustic transients, which was approximately 4 (mu) J. This result suggests that most of the laser pulse is either used to produce the damage void or scattered without absorption from the damage site.© (1992) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

High-power laser radiation has long been used as a source of plasma-generated bulk and surface waves in solids. Of particular interest in this field are Stoneley waves which propagate at the plane boundary between two semi-infinite condensed media. In this work, the near-infrared radiation from a 1O-mJ Q-switched Nd:YAG laser is focused at water-metal, water-PMMA and water-glass interfaces. Ultra-high-speed dye-laser photography is used to visualise the propagation and attenuation of Stoneley and bulk-compression waves in the transparent media using Mach-Zehnder interferometry and focused shadowgraphy. It is believed that these results represent the first direct observation of Stoneley waves. By using Abel-inversion techniques, the pressure amplitudes in the two media are found as functions of both space and time. This leads to an understanding of the energy-dissipation processes which take place as the waves propagate outwards.

Although the dynamics of cavitation bubbles near rigid boundaries have been widely studied using conventional high-speed photographic and schlieren techniques, no quantitative optical measurements of the pressure changes which arise within the liquid and solid media have previously been reported. In this paper, we present a series of high-speed Mach-Zehnder video interferograms of a Nd:YAG laser-induced cavity in water at a distance of 2.7 mm from a plane PMMA boundary. During the first cycle of oscillation, a maximum cavity radius of 1 mm is attained and a translational motion towards the solid wall is observed during which three complete radial oscillations occur. The asymmetrical build-up of pressure in the surrounding liquid during bubble collapse and the subsequent emission of spherical acoustic transients with peak pressures in the order of 100 bars are related to the initial cavity position and size. By viewing the propagation of these acoustic waves across the rigid boundary and into the PMMA, direct measurements of peak stresses in the bulk solid are made.

Graphs are defined as a special kind of relational system and an analogue of Birkhoff's Representation Theorem for Universal Algebras is proved. The notion of ultrapower, a specialization of the ultraproducts introduced into Mathematical Logic by Tarski, Scott and others, is demonstrated to provide a unifying framework within which various problems of graph theory and infinite combinatorial mathematics can be formulated and solved. Thus, theorems extending to the infinite case results of N.G.de Bruijn and P.Erdős in graph colouring, and of P. and M. Hall in combinatorial set theory are proved via the method of ultrapowers. Finally, the problem of embedding graphs in certain topological spaces is taken up, and a characterization of infinite connected planar graphs is derived (see Introduction). Thesis Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)