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Despite the effective National Immunization Programme of Slovakia, some population groups are incompletely vaccinated or unvaccinated. We aimed to describe the measles outbreak spread in Eastern Slovakia between May and October 2018, affecting the Roma communities in relation to the existing immunity gaps.

A case of phaeohyphomycosis caused by strains of both Alternaria spp. and Phaeosclera dematioides is presented. First clinical signs of mycosis appeared on the patient's face, after an injury with a straw stalk during the wheat harvest in Germany in 1942. Further signs developed in 1955 at one forearm, and again in 1968 in the mouth, leading to perforation of the palate. After treatment with amphotericin B (1973-75) she went into a 13-year-long, clinically asymptomatic remission. She relapsed in 1988, when eight foci of the disease developed, mostly on both forearms. Diabetes mellitus and asthma developed at this time. After pulse therapy with itraconazole the patient remains in a good clinical condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Generation Z, defined as "post-millennial," is considered to be the first generation that could end smoking. The objective is also to take into account the evolutionary aspect of the smoking and attitudes of the Generation Z. The aim of this study was to explore the willingness of Generation Z in Slovakia to comply with the legislation adopted in the field of anti-tobacco policy and to investigate some selected social factors-intention, subjective norm and percevied behavioral control-that contribute to a lower rate of compliance. Methods: Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data on cigarette smoking among 3,557 adolescents (age range 13-15) in 2016 as well as on attitudes towards tobacco use and control measures were used to explore the level of compliance of adolescents with anti-tobacco regulations in Slovakia within the Framework Convention of Tobacco Control (FCTC). We used the concept of intention as explained in Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour (1985), focusing on the role of subjective norm and perceived behavioural control. Results: We found a decrease in ever smoking, current smoking and frequent smoking. We found that these adolescents start experimenting with dependence-causing substances, such as tobacco, regardless of existing rules. Conclusion: Adolescents were attracted to smoking, although they were aware of health effects of passive smoking, and a vast majority liked smoke-free places. They are also influenced by their peers and parental models., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they do not have any conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Pavlikova, Baska, Freel and Van Dijk.)

Objectives: To present Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data on the prevalence of cigarette smoking and selected social factors among students aged 13-15 years in 25 European countries., Methods: The GYTS is a school-based survey of students aged 13-15 years. The GYTS was conducted in 25 European countries (2002-2005) and produced representative data for each country., Results: In 25 European countries studied, 22% of boys and 18% of girls smoked cigarettes. In 17 of 25 countries, current cigarette smoking did not differ between boys and girls. Exposure to secondhand smoke is very high throughout the 25 countries. Exposure to pro-tobacco indirect advertising (having tobacco company logos on promotional items and being given free cigarettes) is frequent throughout the countries., Conclusions: Intensified efforts to lessen harm caused by tobacco use among youth in 25 European countries included in this study are urgently needed. These countries need to develop and implement comprehensive tobacco control programs including public education campaigns, cessation programs, enforcement of existing measures, and related policy efforts. The WHO FCTC provides a useful framework for implementing such a comprehensive approach.

Objective: The aim of this study was to describe the relationship between smoking habits and socioeconomic determinants among adolescents., Background: Tobacco use among young people is a formidable social health concern. The aim of this paper is to describe the situation in selected localities surveyed, and to elucidate the relations among experiments with tobacco in adolescent youth and behaviour of parents, friends and teachers and media influence. Thd objectives of this study are to describe patterns of self-reported smoking and to describe the association of trying smoking with other variables, such as social, or socio-demographics among a sample of young students., Methods: Global Youth Tobacco Survey to track tobacco use among youth across countries using a common methodology and core questionnaire. In Slovakia, GYTS was carried out at the turn of 2002 to 2003. A total of 4.594 students participated in the study., Results: The results indicate that the majority of the students (74.3%) have tried smoking where both parents are smokers. We found that gender, parents', friends' and teachers' smoking had a significant influence on whether the children ever tried smoking. A parent who smokes was found as a strong significant predictor for trying smoking in the group of students [OR = 1.6 (1.39-1.92)]., Conclusion: Predictors of smoking behaviour include parents', teachers' and friends' smoking. Public health interventions aim at conducting effective health promotion programs tailored to specific population groups and known predictors should be central to the design of such endeavours (Tab. 5, Ref. 18).

Purpose: To compare selected parameters of renal circulation between small for gestational age (SGA) and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) newborns., Methods: Fifty-two SGA and 100 AGA term newborns were examined. The size of the kidneys were measured, and renal blood flow in the central and intraparenchymal renal arteries were assessed via Doppler sonography. Peak systolic velocity (PSV), end diastolic velocity (EDV), mean blood flow velocity (V mean), resistance index (RI), and pulsatility index (PI) were determined and compared between the groups., Results: No statistically significant differences in the velocity parameters were found between SGA and AGA infants in central renal arteries. Slightly higher RIs and PIs were seen in AGA newborns (RI, 0.76 +/- 0.13 versus 0.78 +/- 0.06 [p < 0.05]; PI, 1.65 +/- 0.54 versus 1.84 +/- 0.46 [p < 0.05]). There were statistically significant differences between the groups in all measured parameters in intraparenchymal arteries (RI, 0.57 +/- 0.11 versus 0.63 +/- 0.05 [p < 0.001]; PI, 0.89 +/- 0.26 versus 1.09 +/- 0.16 [p < 0.001]) except PSV (7.11 +/- 1.55 versus 7.14 +/- 0.81 cm/s [p > 0.05])., Conclusion: Based on our findings, we suggest that renal circulation is not negatively influenced by intrauterine growth restriction in SGA neonates compared with AGA newborns., ((c) 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound, 2008.)

The authors analysed the direct cost associated with treatment of IPI in 156 patients hospitalised with the diagnosis of pneumococcal meningitis at the terciary care Teaching Hospital. The total direct cost for 156 patients was 22,180,080 CZK (Czech Crowns). The average length of hospital stay for the patient with invasive pneumococcal meningitis (IPM) was 23 days. It was possible to conclude, that the direct financial expenses in 156 patients with pneumococcal meningitis would enable 88,337 people to be vaccinated. This is 6.2 % of all people in 65+ age group living in the Czech Republic, 54.8 % of all people in 65+ age group living in the Morava-Silesia Region with 1,250,800 inhabitants, or all inhabitants below 14 and above 65 years in Ostrava city (total population 312,000). The cost of pneumococcal polysacharide vaccine and its administration was 566 times lower compared to the average cost of treatment for one IPM case (Ref.21). Full Text (Free, PDF) www.bmj.sk.

Objectives: After birth, the newborn intestinal circulation undergoes physiological changes. The purpose of this work was to characterize the changes in mesenteric blood flow velocity occuring during the first three days of life in healthy term infants., Methods: 30 healthy term newborns were studied repeatedly at the age of 2, 24 and 70 hours. Blood flow velocity in superior mesenteric artery (SMA) was measured by Doppler ultrasound, peak systolic velocity (PSV), end-diastolic velocity (EDV) and time-averaged mean velocity (TAV) were recorded at each time point. Resistance index (RI) and pulsatility index (PI) were calculated., Results: SMA EDV increased from 2 h [-5.2+/-6.8 cm/s (mean +/- SD)] to 24 h (12.9+/-3.8 cm/s, p<0.001) with further insignificant increase to 70 h (14.9+/-4.7 cm/s). At 2 h of age the mean EDV was negative in 23 of 30 cases (76.7%). PSV did not change between 2 h (58.0+/-21.8 cm/s) and 24 h (58.5+/-15.0 cm/s) but it increased to 70 h (79.6+/-17.7 cm/s). TAV showed a significant increase with time. RI decreased from 2 h (1.09+/-0.11) to 24 h (0.78+/-0.06, p<0.001) with further insignificant increase to 70 h (0.81+/-0.06)., Conclusions: The blood flow velocity in SMA increases during the early neonatal period in term infants. The most remarkable changes occur within the first 24 hours of life. At 2 h of age a reversed blood flow is present in majority of infants.

Objective: The article analyses changes in tobacco use in medical students in Slovakia in 1995, 1999 and 2004., Methods: Questionnaire survey in 448 students of the Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Martin, Slovakia, was carried out in October and November 2004. Data were compared with similar surveys carried out in 1995 and 1999., Results: Prevalence of daily smoking in men increased from 11.1 in 1995 to 21.8% in 2004. In women, within 1995-2004, daily smoking increased from 5.2% to 12.3%, occasional smoking from 11.6% to 19.8%. Also proportion of women initiating smoking during their university study increased. In both genders the proportion of never smokers dramatically dropped between 1995 and 1999 (in men from 43.2% to 23.2%; in women from 61.9 to 18.2)., Conclusion: Upward trend in tobacco use, particularly in women, is a reason for concern. In medical faculties, principles of prevention should be more emphasized and the students motivated for healthy life-style and to fulfill their future role in public health. The situation noted among medical students indicates that a community in Slovakia is still not satisfactory inclined towards non-smoking and a dramatic decrease of tobacco use can hardly be expected either in the near future.

Objectives: To present data on Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS), Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS), Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia., Methods: A questionnaire survey of a representative sample of 16 918 schoolchildren aged 13-15 years (2002-2003)., Results: Exposure to ETS was reported more frequently in public places than in homes and more frequently from current smokers (CS) than from never smokers (NS). ETS in homes was lower in Czech (57.6% in CS, 24.7% in NS) than in other countries (the highest in Poland: 93.0% in CS, 80.9% in NS). ETS in public places was highest in Hungary (96.9% in CS, 89.2% in NS), lowest in Czech (90.1% in CS, 57.3% in NS). Most students considered ETS as harmful and presented positive attitudes towards smoking ban., Discussion: ETS in studied countries, save the Czech Republic, exceeded the global prevalence, while the situation is better than in numerous other Eastern European countries.

Unlabelled: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the most important public health concerns and its consequences represent a considerable social and health burden. The study analyses the occurrence of DM in Slovakia in 1992-2002., Material and Methods: Age standardised incidence and prevalence rates of DM were calculated from the data published by the Institute of Health Information and Statistics for 1992, 1997 and 2002. Disease length and the incidence of selected complications in 1997 and 2002 were also analysed., Results: In 1992-2002, DM prevalence in Slovakia increased from 4261.3 to 5065.8 cases per 100,000 population and appeared to be positively associated with age, while the DM incidence rates rose from 329.6 to 423.7 cases per 100,000 population. In most patients, DM length was 5 years or less, showing an upward trend over the studied period. From 1997 to 2002, the rates of selected diabetic complications slightly increased (from 18.7 % to 20.3 % for peripheral neuropathy, from 16.8 % to 18.0 % for retinopathy, from 7.1 % to 8.0 % for nephropathy and from 1.2 % to 1.3 % for amputations)., Discussion and Conclusions: Comparing with the world data, Slovakia ranks among the countries with relatively high prevalence of DM, mainly due to the rising incidence. These results are consistent with the global upward trend in DM. However, taking into account underreporting, the actual DM prevalence in Slovakia could be considerably higher. Besides primary prevention, risk reduction measures should be focused particularly on early diagnosis and better implementation of secondary prevention.

Objectives: To show selected findings from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) conducted in Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia., Methods: Representative sample of 16918 school children aged 13-15 years; data were obtained through uniform questionnaires. The fieldwork was conducted in 2002 and 2003., Results: Age at initiation of smoking was particularly earlier in Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia than in Hungary. Over one third of the students reported current cigarette smoking in Czech Republic (34.9%) and Hungary (33.5%) compared to about one-fourth in Slovakia (24.3%) and Poland (23.3%). Among current smokers, about two thirds in Slovakia (64.0%) desired to stop smoking, while only one third in Hungary (36.7%). The prevalence of current cigarette smoking was similar between genders., Discussion: Smoking prevalence in these countries is considerably higher than worldwide data. Women's smoking could be an important public health problem in the future. Repeated surveys could show trends and give a clearer picture of the epidemiological situation.

The authors carried out a survey in outpatient and hospitalised patients with risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease in a tertiary-care medical faculty affiliated hospital. Data were collected by individual interviews and verified against the medical records of all addressed patients. The authors also attempted to discover the attitude of general practitioners (GPs) from 2 Slovak districts towards the pneumococcal vaccine by means of an anonymous questionnaire. Out of the total of 154 addressed patients, 128 (83.1%) had at least one risk factor for acquiring invasive pneumococcal disease. However, only 8 (6.3%) of them had ever been administered pneumococcal vaccine. Out of 34 hospitalised patients with at least one risk factor 82.4 % had not received any pneumococcal vaccination in the past. When subdivided according to age and risk factors (chronic respiratory, cardiovascular, uropoetic, metabolic, immunne system disorders, asplenia), vaccination coverage in all groups was very low, ranging between --9.3%. In an anonymous questionnaire 74 (94.9%) out of 77 surveyed GPs referred to a lack of information on the polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine and 22 (28.2%) expressed their general distrust towards vaccination of any kind. The main role in increasing the disturbingly low pneumococcal vaccination coverage lies in the hands of medical professionals, especially GPs who should inform their patients about the possibility of a free vaccine and who should make an effort to explain to their patients the benefit of pneumococcal vaccination. (Tab. 4, Reft 9.)

The authors performed the cultivation of swabs taken from membranes of 110 stethoscopes of physicians, medical students and shared stethoscopes from ward consultant rooms. In addition to that, 24 random samples from other non-invasive health-care tools and the hospital environment were taken. In order to find out about the disinfection habits and knowledge of medical students, 97 of them were addressed in an anonymous questionnaire. Out of 110 stethoscopes, microbial colonisation was not present only in nine cases (8 %). Staphylococcus sp. was present on 94 stethoscopes (85 %), out of which 19 (20 %) were methicillin-resistant staphylococci of various species. S. aureus was found in 16 cases (14 %), out of which MRSA made 12 % (two cases). Cultivation of 24 additional samples discovered methicillin-resistant staphylococci in four cases--two of them were MRSA present on the esmarch and a blood-presure cuff. The questionnaire revealed that only six (6 %) addressed medical students have ever disinfected their stethoscopes in the past. Disinfection of non-critical tools should become an integral part of under-graduate and postgraduate education (Tab. 1, Fig. 2, Ref. 7).

Telephone quitlines for smoking cessation should be included into the available tobacco dependence treatment and should be included into smoking cessation guidelines. Telephone quitlines does not mean only the help to the calling smoker, but also can increase the number of quit attempts in the general population. Especially minorities that not so often take part in the classic smoking cessation treatment, use quitlines more often (e.g. pregnant women). Quitlines are economically effective, although the most expensive form - individual counselling - should be reserved for those really willing to stop. Quitlines should be given governmental financial support (compared to other medical interventions, any smoking cessation treatment is economically more cost effective).

The increased occurrence of lung cancer in residents of Dolny Kubin, the North-Slovakia district with ferrochromium industry, compared to the general population of Slovakia, led us to the study assessing influence of the occupational and environmantal exposure to chromium on the lung cancer incidence, respecting also the risk coming from cigarette smoking. Residents of Dolny Kubin district with the diagnosed lung cancer in 1984-1999 were involved in the study. The occurrence of lung cancer was significantly higher in people working in ferrochromium industry. The age at the onset of the disease in people exposed to chromium was by 5.5 years lower than in non-exposed. Smoking was an important risk factor, which has been proved particularly in non-exposed group where 62% were smokers and the onset of the lung cancer in them occured about 3.4 years earlier than in non-smokers. In exposed groups, no significant effect of smoking was found. We can conclude, that occupational exposure to chromium was identified as the main risk factor of lung cancer in Dolny Kubin district even overlaying effect of smoking.

The authors reviewed published data dealing with the effectiveness of school programs in tobacco control. Most of the evaluated school programs showed at least partial effect including namely improved knowledge level, decreased prevalence of smoking initiation and continuation. Less successful was achieving of behavioural changes and social resistance. Effect of the school programs can be significantly amplified by combination with other interventions such as mass media campaigns, parent involvement and extracurricular activities. The main problem of the studies in this field is a relatively short follow-up time not allowing considering findings as relevant evidences for long-term effects of school programs. However, even assuming only time limited decrease of prevalence of smoking among intervened students, such temporary effect leads to the decrease of a lifetime cigarette exposure having beneficial health effects. Considering social, demographic and cultural aspects of the epidemiology of smoking habit, evidence based data in this field, relevant for Central and Eastern Countries, are required. Such situation calls for authentic trials and studies respecting specific conditions in these countries.

Smoking cessation represents a very difficult task for the smoker, often requiring medical assistance. The introduction of smoking cessation drugs has been crucial to this process. Currently, there are two standardly used treatments: nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and the antidepressant bupropion. Soon after their introduction, NRTs were sold over-the-counter (OTC), as oppose to on prescription, although in most countries, bupropion remains available only on prescription. Both prescribed and OTC NRTs have similar efficacy (i.e., their use approximately doubles the cessation rate among users and their use has shown a high level of economic rewarding). The most important advantage of OTC NRT is availability, as some patients may not be comfortable with the use of prescribed drugs. The introduction of OTC NRT has led to a substantial rise in their use, increasing the proportion of ex-smokers in the population. However, there are a lack of published, cost-benefit analysis data comparing prescription with OTC NRT. Considering the different economic, social and cultural conditions within particular countries, it is difficult to formulate a common optimal economic model for the distribution of NRT. Authentic studies and trials in this field in order to develop the appropriate policies in each particular country, are clearly required.

While familial cases of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease are extremely rare all over the world, 3 familial clusters were observed between 1983-2000 in a relatively small area situated in the North of Slovakia. Prevalence of CJD in this area exceeded the overall prevalence in Slovakia more than 8 times. The majority of CJD patients admitted consuming sheep brain. Most patients lived in small secluded villages with rather common familial intermarriage. CJD affected both sexes equally. All patients were prior to the disease mentally normal individuals. Shortly after the onset of CJD their mental status deteriorated remarkably with an average survival rate of 3.6 months.

The reasons for low rate of influenza vaccination in Slovakia have been analyzed in selected target groups. In our questionnaire study we focused on the level of knowledge about this vaccination and the attitudes towards it. We selected three target groups: medical students, nurses and printing company workers. The authors as well tried to identify the ways how the flu vaccination coverage could be increased in the future. The questionnaire survey revealed several surprising facts. Though almost all the respondents knew about the existence of influenza vaccine, less than one quarter of them have ever received influenza shot. Despite our expectations that the main source of information about influenza prevention in medical students and nurses would be from their medical and nursing studies, it was shown to be from mass media instead. Even more staggering was the distrust towards the vaccination as a reason for not being vaccinated in a high proportion of both the medical students and the nurses. The majority of medical students would not even want to get a vaccination, even if it were to be provided for free. These results suggest that if we want to improve the low influenza vaccination coverage within the general population of our country, we will have to focus our attention primarily on the professional groups of medical workers and medical and nursing students who should be able to provide the public with the competent advice. Therefore, changing the current negative approach and improving the deficit in knowledge concerning vaccination are the key tasks for all under- as well as postgraduate teachers of medicine and nursing in Slovakia, especially, but not exclusively, of those specialised in public health.(Tab. 3, Fig. 2, Ref. 8).

Objective: The goal of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of prevention of cardiovascular diseases., Methods: The follow-up study included a sample of 206 intervened pregnant women. They were given an information booklet about risk factors and prevention. During the postpartum period they were contacted again and 111 of them completed a questionnaire. Control sample consisted from 200 women inthe postpartum period not intervened, who filled in the same questionnaire., Results and Conclusions: Such intervention positively influences both attitudes towards lifestyle and knowledge level and can be considered as an appropriate preventive measure in pregnant women. The question is, if the achieved changes last for a longer time and if they are passed an to members of families of the intervened women (Fig. 1, Ref. 8).

Saliva is a body fluid containing antibodies of diagnostic significance. Unlike venipuncture, saliva collection (by brushing the teeth and rubbing the gums) is painless, non-invasive, inexpensive, simple and rapid. By using sensitive immunoassays in salivary specimens it is possible to diagnose immunoglobulins against a wide range of infectious diseases e.g. hepatitis A, B and C, measles, mumps, rubella, human immunodeficiency virus, Epstein-Barr virus, parvovirus B 19, human herpesvirus 6 and Helicobacter pylori infections. Salivary antibody testing may provide better access to epidemic outbreaks, children, large populations, hard-to-reach risk groups and may thus play a major role in the surveillance and control of infectious diseases. (Tab. 2, Ref. 34.)

Introduction: The main goal of a questionnaire cross-sectional study was to compare the changes of smoking habits in medical students between 1995 and 1999. Beside this, other factors of life-style such as alcohol consumption, nutritional status [studied through body mass index (BMI)] and citrus consumption were studied., Methods: Cross-sectional questionnaire study in 453 medical students of 1st to 5th academic years of the Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Martin, Slovakia, carried out in October and November 1999. Data on smoking habit were compared with a similar study carried out in 1995., Results: Prevalence of regular smoking (min. 1 cig/day) was 13.6% in men and 8.9% in women and did not change significantly in comparison with 1995. In women, prevalence of occasional smokers increased from 7.3% in 1995 to 19.8% in 1999 and almost reached men in the same year (21.8%). During this period significantly decreased proportion of respondents who have never smoked both in men (from 43.0 to 23.3%) and women (from 61.9% to 18.2%). Excessive drinking dominates in men, overweight (BMI > or = 25) had 16.0% of males and 2.0% of females and excessive underweight (BMI < or = 17.5) 1.0% of men and 2.8% of women. More than one half of respondents consumed less than 1 piece of citrus fruit per day., Conclusions: Smoking of men still predominates, however, the most apparent changes of smoking habit in regard to increasing proportion of smoking women, particularly occasional smokers. This indicates increasing social tolerance of smoking. In female a possibility of eating disorders deserve attention and a need for the improvement of diet is felt in both sexes.

The results of preventive parasitological examinations for intestinal parasites in preschool and school children of the Turiec Region (Central Slovakia) in 1970-1999 are submitted. The study is divided into three cross-sections in the following decades (1970-1979; 1980-1989; 1990-1999). An acute decrease in geohelminths virtually to zero values has been found, as well as a significant decrease in intestinal protozoans. The occurrence of Enterobius vermicularis, despite its significant decrease in the recent decade, remains on a relatively high level. In the conclusion the authors discuss continuation of parasitological field examinations, and, on the basis of their 30-year experience, they submit their recommendations for the simplest and most effective way of such examinations.

The authors reviewed literature on nicotine replacement therapy and bupropion in smoking cessation. Nicotine replacement therapy increases the quit rate in smoking cessation; however, its efficacy is influenced by numerous factors. Bupropion, particularly combined with nicotine replacement therapy, reaches even higher efficacy. Behavioural therapy as well as individualized approach during the cessation process are beneficial. Beside from this, these agents help to avoid excessive weight gain after quitting. If properly used, they have minimal side effects, and, if not contraindicated, they should be included into standard smoking cessation programs. (Ref. 74.)

Literary data on non-pharmacological approach in smoking cessation have been reviewed. The used methods are depending on particular target groups: patients visiting general practitioners, clients of smoking cessation clinics, pregnant women, hospitalised patients, and adolescents. Community based intervention represents a specific approach. The existing data on non-pharmacological smoking cessation show certain differences with a wide range of the reported cessation rates. Important role of primary health care providers in smoking cessation is evident, however, frequently underestimated. Specific situation in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) requires evidence based data in this field, taking into consideration also psychological, social and cultural aspects. Only guidelines based upon authentic studies carried out in CEE can be of value for long-term tobacco control programmes. (Ref. 70.)

Introduction: Cigarette smoking has reached the proportion of a global epidemic with particularly devastating consequences in countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Learning of epidemiological aspects of smoking in youngsters, especially university students, is of great importance for the whole community. Goals of the study were mapping smoking habits and identifying other factors of life style including body mass index, alcohol and citrus fruit consumption in non-medical university students in Slovakia., Methods: A cross-sectional questionnaire study, including 2,419 respondents, was carried out in students of 5 non-medical faculties in Slovakia from October to December 1997., Results: 19.6% of males and 12.3% of females were regular smokers (min 1 cig/day) and 16.1% of males and 15.1% of females were occasional smokers. From regular smokers 11.5% of males and 13.2% of females started to smoke at the University. Respondents from urban areas smoked more frequently than those from rural areas. Significant association was found between alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking in males. More than a half of respondents consumed less than 1 piece of citrus per day. 15.4% of males were overweight (BMI > or = 25) and 8.5% of females were very underweight (BMI < or = 17.5)., Conclusions: In females social smoking prevails and an increasing rate of female-smoking can be expected in Slovakia. There is a need of improving dietary habits of youngsters in Slovakia in favour of the consumption of more fruit and vegetables in both sexes, and in females additional attention should be paid to eating disorders.

The results of a cross-sectional questionnaire study on smoking in 1,571 pupils of secondary schools in Martin, Slovakia (average age 15.7 y. +/- 1.0) are presented. Prevalence of regular smoking (min. 1 cigarette/day) was in 24.8% of boys and in 14.3% of girls. Higher prevalence was in pupils of apprentice schools. Association between smoking or respondents and their parents were stronger in case of mothers and their children, namely girls. Higher educational level of parents was followed by a decrease of smoking in girls. Girls appear to be more influenced by family background than boys. The authors emphasise the importance of primary prevention of smoking in pupils, namely within the school-based programmes, since smoking habit in these age groups is still developing. The study design can be used as a model for further studies of that kind.

A questionnaire study on smoking and on the attitudes towards it has been carried out in 667 medical students. The study revealed a lower prevalence of smoking in the studied group than in general population (regular smokers: 7.3 per cent; occasional smokers: 14.3 per cent). The study confirmed the importance of family background for the initiation of smoking habit as well as the association of smoking habit with alcohol consumption. Some of the results were compared with similar study carried out on the same faculty of medicine ten years ago. The goal of the study was not only to gather the data on smoking as an important risk factor of cardiovascular diseases but also to verify the used methods, to improve the system of collecting information and to promote the organisation of such population studies.

The authors submit a review of modifiable risk factors of cardiovascular diseases in the light of existing data in the literature. They analyze the epidemiological impact of smoking, hypertension, dietary factors, cholesterol and obesity in particular. They stress frequent dynamic changes in our knowledge in this field.

In the submited pilot study the authors present a recently introduced method of monitoring of the regional perfusion by gastric tonometry during implantation of an endoprosthesis of the hip joint. The objective of the investigation was in addition to introduction of a new method to assess the influence of the type of anaesthesia on markers of the gastrointestinal tract perfusion. The method was used in 10 patients aged 27 - 75 years where in four instances a cemented endoprosthesis was implanted and an uncemented one in six cases. Five times general anaesthesia was used, 5 times regional anaesthesia. During monitoring the authors assessed PrCO2, pHi, CO2 gap, pH gap, EtCO2, arterial pressure, heart rate and SaO2. The patients operated under general anaesthesia had all pathological values of pHi, two had pathological values of pH gap and one of CO2 gap. In the group with regional anaesthesia three patients had pathological pHi values, two had pathological pH gap values and one a pathological CO2 gap value. Statistical evaluation revealed a significant difference in pH gap and CO2 gap values in favour of regional anaesthesia (p = 0,03). The results of the trial indicate a better gastrointestinal perfusion in patients under regional anaesthesia and a pathological state of organ perfusion while the values of standard systemic values are unaltered. Key words: gastrointestinal tonometry, general anaesthesia, regional anaesthesia, total replacement of the hip joint.

The authors analyzed the cardiovascular mortality trend in 1985 - 1990 and 1991 -1994. They discuss factors which may have influenced this trend which declined slightly since 1991. They emphasize the importance of cardiovascular diseases in public health and ask epidemiologists, health professionals and the public to pay more attention to the elimination of risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. The authors' suggestions are in context with some countries which made already considerable advances as regards elimination of cardiovascular risk factors.