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Background: Bats (Order Chiroptera) are an important reservoir of emerging zoonotic microbes, including viruses of public health concern such as henipaviruses, lyssaviruses, and SARS-related coronaviruses. Despite the continued discovery of new viruses in bat populations, a significant proportion of these viral agents remain uncharacterized, highlighting the imperative for additional research aimed at elucidating their evolutionary relationship and taxonomic classification. Results: In order to delve deeper into the viral reservoir hosted by bats, the present study employed Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology to analyze 13,105 swab samples obtained from various locations in China. Analysis of 378 sample pools revealed the presence of 846 vertebrate-associated viruses. Subsequent thorough examination, adhering to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) criteria for virus classification, identified a total of 120 putative viral species with the potential to emerge as novel viruses, comprising a total of 294 viral strains. Phylogenetic analysis of conserved genomic regions indicated the novel virus exhibited a diverse array of viral lineages and branches, some of which displayed close genetic relationships to known human and livestock pathogens, such as poxviruses and pestiviruses. Conclusions: This study investigates the breadth of DNA and RNA viruses harbored by bats, delineating several novel evolutionary lineages and offering significant contributions to virus taxonomy. Furthermore, the identification of hitherto unknown viruses with relevance to human and livestock health underscores the importance of this study in encouraging infectious disease monitoring and management efforts in both public health and veterinary contexts. 5R8JHumEnvkqKNe4tF9zBo Video Abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Bats (Order Chiroptera) are an important reservoir of emerging zoonotic microbes, including viruses of public health concern such as henipaviruses, lyssaviruses, and SARS-related coronaviruses. Despite the continued discovery of new viruses in bat populations, a significant proportion of these viral agents remain uncharacterized, highlighting the imperative for additional research aimed at elucidating their evolutionary relationship and taxonomic classification. Results In order to delve deeper into the viral reservoir hosted by bats, the present study employed Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology to analyze 13,105 swab samples obtained from various locations in China. Analysis of 378 sample pools revealed the presence of 846 vertebrate-associated viruses. Subsequent thorough examination, adhering to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) criteria for virus classification, identified a total of 120 putative viral species with the potential to emerge as novel viruses, comprising a total of 294 viral strains. Phylogenetic analysis of conserved genomic regions indicated the novel virus exhibited a diverse array of viral lineages and branches, some of which displayed close genetic relationships to known human and livestock pathogens, such as poxviruses and pestiviruses. Conclusions This study investigates the breadth of DNA and RNA viruses harbored by bats, delineating several novel evolutionary lineages and offering significant contributions to virus taxonomy. Furthermore, the identification of hitherto unknown viruses with relevance to human and livestock health underscores the importance of this study in encouraging infectious disease monitoring and management efforts in both public health and veterinary contexts. Video Abstract

Humankind has witnessed increased frequency of emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in the past few decades. The major categories of pathogenic emerging and re-emerging viral infections include respiratory, arthropodborne and bat-borne zoonotic viruses. These viral infections are notorious for causing immune dysregulation and have the potential to mount excessive immune reaction, causing immunopathology that includes tissue injury, systemic inflammation, multi-organ failure and even death. A better understanding of the emerging or re-emerging viral-mediated immunomodulation is necessary for controlling the virus, while preventing severity of the disease associated with exaggerated immune response. In this article, we review the current understanding of emerging and reemerging respiratory, arboviral and bat-borne zoonotic viruses; and consequent immune dysregulation or immunopathology associated with these viral infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Humankind has witnessed increased frequency of emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in the past few decades. The major categories of pathogenic emerging and re-emerging viral infections include respiratory, arthropod-borne and bat-borne zoonotic viruses. These viral infections are notorious for causing immune dysregulation and have the potential to mount excessive immune reaction, causing immunopathology that includes tissue injury, systemic inflammation, multi-organ failure and even death. A better understanding of the emerging or re-emerging viral-mediated immunomodulation is necessary for controlling the virus, while preventing severity of the disease associated with exaggerated immune response. In this article, we review the current understanding of emerging and re-emerging respiratory, arboviral and bat-borne zoonotic viruses; and consequent immune dysregulation or immunopathology associated with these viral infections.

Background Although hantaviruses have long been associated with rodents, they are also described in other mammalian hosts, such as shrews, moles and bats. Hantaviruses associated with bats have been described in Asian, European and Brazilian species of bats. As these mammals represent the second major mammalian order, and they are the major mammals that inhabit urban areas, it is extremely important to maintain a viral surveillance in these animals. Our aim was to conduct serosurveillance in bats in an urban area in the city of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil, to contribute to the information about hantaviruses circulation in bats. Methods We analyzed samples from 778 neotropical bat specimens classified into 21 bat species and four different families collected in the urban area of Ribeirão Preto city, from 2014 to 2019 by an ELISA for the detection of IgG antibodies against orthohantavirus. Results We detected IgG-specific antibodies against the nucleoprotein of orthohantavirus in 0.9% (7/778) bats tested, including four Molossus molossus (Pallas' Free-tailed Bat), two Glossophaga soricina (Pallas's Long-tongued Bat) and one Eumops glaucinus (Wagner's mastiff bat). Conclusions Overall, our results show the first serological evidence of hantavirus infection in three common bat species in urban areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Bat-borne virus surveillance is necessary for determining inter-species transmission risks and is important due to the wide-range of bat species which may harbour potential pathogens. This study aimed to monitor coronaviruses (CoVs) and paramyxoviruses (PMVs) in bats roosting in northwest Italian regions. Our investigation was focused on CoVs and PMVs due to their proven ability to switch host and their zoonotic potential. Here we provide the phylogenetic characterization of the highly conserved polymerase gene fragments. Results Family-wide PCR screenings were used to test 302 bats belonging to 19 different bat species. Thirty-eight animals from 12 locations were confirmed as PCR positive, with an overall detection rate of 12.6% [95% CI: 9.3–16.8]. CoV RNA was found in 36 bats belonging to eight species, while PMV RNA in three Pipistrellus spp. Phylogenetic characterization have been obtained for 15 alpha- CoVs, 5 beta-CoVs and three PMVs; moreover one P. pipistrellus resulted co-infected with both CoV and PMV. A divergent alpha-CoV clade from Myotis nattereri SpA is also described. The compact cluster of beta-CoVs from R. ferrumequinum roosts expands the current viral sequence database, specifically for this species in Europe. To our knowledge this is the first report of CoVs in Plecotus auritus and M. oxygnathus, and of PMVs in P. kuhlii. Conclusions This study identified alpha and beta-CoVs in new bat species and in previously unsurveyed Italian regions. To our knowledge this represents the first and unique report of PMVs in Italy. The 23 new bat genetic sequences presented will expand the current molecular bat-borne virus databases. Considering the amount of novel bat-borne PMVs associated with the emergence of zoonotic infections in animals and humans in the last years, the definition of viral diversity within European bat species is needed. Performing surveillance studies within a specific geographic area can provide awareness of viral burden where bats roost in close proximity to spillover hosts, and form the basis for the appropriate control measures against potential threats for public health and optimal management of bats and their habitats.

Bats are hosts of a range of viruses, and their great diversity and unique characteristics that distinguish them from all other mammals have been related to the maintenance, evolution, and dissemination of these pathogens. Recently, very divergent hantaviruses have been discovered in distinct species of bats worldwide, but their association with human disease remains unclear. Considering the low success rates of detecting hantavirus RNA in bat tissues and that to date no hantaviruses have been isolated from bat samples, immunodiagnostic tools could be very helpful to understand pathogenesis, epidemiology, and geographic range of bat-borne hantaviruses. In this sense, we aimed to identify in silico immunogenic B-cell epitopes present on bat-borne hantaviruses nucleoprotein (NP) and verify if they are conserved among them and other selected members of Mammantavirinae, using a combination of (the three most used) different prediction algorithms, ELLIPRO, Discotope 2.0, and PEPITO server. To support our data, we in silico modeled 3D structures of NPs from representative members of bat-borne hantaviruses, using comparative and ab initio methods due to the absence of crystallographic structures of studied proteins or similar models in the Protein Data Bank. Our analysis demonstrated the antigenic complexity of the bat-borne hantaviruses group, showing a low sequence conservation of epitopes among members of its own group and a minor conservation degree in comparison to Orthohantavirus, with a recognized importance to public health. Our data suggest that the use of recombinant rodent-borne hantavirus NPs to cross-detect antibodies against bat- or shrew-borne viruses could underestimate the real impact of this virus in nature.

Background: Kaeng Khoi virus (KKV), which belongs to the genus Orthobunyavirus, family Perbunyaviridae, was originally isolated from the brain tissue of bats and may cause infection in humans. In this study, the KKV strain WDBC1403 was isolated from bat flies (Eucampsipoda sundaica), ectoparasites of the bat Rousettus leschenaultia, collected from Yunnan Province of China at the Sino-Burmese border. Methods and Results: The bat fly specimens were ground and inoculated in culture cells. The WDBC1403 strain was shown to induce cytopathic effects in Vero, baby hamster kidney (BHK-21), and Tb1Lu cells, but not in C6/36 cells; however, viral gene amplification was detected in the supernatants of C6/36 cells. Using electron microscopy, the virus was determined to be spherical, enveloped, and 80–90 nm in diameter; it was also shown to form plaques in BHK-21 cells and the titer reached 1 × 106.57 plaque-forming units/mL 24 h after infection. The phylogenetic analysis showed that WDBC1403 is a KKV strain, but is independent of the original KKV strain (PSC-19). Viral genome analysis revealed that the nucleotide and amino acid sequence identities of the S, M, and L segments of WDBC1403 with PSC-19 were 88.2% and 96.1%, 76.7% and 85.0%, and 78.3% and 88.9%, respectively. Two amino acids were removed at the end of the open reading frame of the M segment, and 47 nucleotides were removed in the 3′-untranslated region of the M segment of the WDBC1403 strain compared with the PSC-19 strain. Conclusions: The WDBC1403 strain is a highly divergent KKV strain, suggesting that there are a variety of KKV strains that exhibit molecular differences. Moreover, because of the large variations in nucleotide and amino acid sequence in the M segment, which encodes an important membrane protein, further research on antigenicity and pathogenicity in humans and animals is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasingly asked question is 'can we confidently link bats with emerging viruses?'. No, or not yet, is the qualified answer based on the evidence available. Although more than 200 viruses - some of them deadly zoonotic viruses - have been isolated from or otherwise detected in bats, the supposed connections between bats, bat viruses and human diseases have been raised more on speculation than on evidence supporting their direct or indirect roles in the epidemiology of diseases (except for rabies). However, we are convinced that the evidence points in that direction and that at some point it will be proved that bats are competent hosts for at least a few zoonotic viruses. In this review, we cover aspects of bat biology, ecology and evolution that might be relevant in medical investigations and we provide a historical synthesis of some disease outbreaks causally linked to bats. We provide evolutionary-based hypotheses to tentatively explain the viral transmission route through mammalian intermediate hosts and to explain the geographic concentration of most outbreaks, but both are no more than speculations that still require formal assessment.

Bat-borne viruses carry undeniable risks to the health of human beings and animals, and there is growing recognition of the need for a ‘One Health’ approach to understand their frequently complex spill-over routes. While domesticated animals can play central roles in major spill-over events of zoonotic bat-borne viruses, for example during the pig-amplified Malaysian Nipah virus outbreak of 1998-1999, the extent of their potential to act as bridging or amplifying species for these viruses has not been characterised systematically. This review aims to compile current knowledge on the role of domesticated animals as hosts of two types of bat-borne viruses, henipaviruses and filoviruses. A systematic literature search of these virus-host interactions in domesticated animals identified 72 relevant studies, which were categorised by year, location, design and type of evidence generated. The review then focusses on Africa as a case study, comparing research efforts in domesticated animals and bats with the distributions of documented human cases. Major gaps remain in our knowledge of the potential ability of domesticated animals to contract or spread these zoonoses. Closing these gaps will be necessary to fully evaluate and mitigate spill-over risks of these viruses, especially with global agricultural intensification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bat-borne virus surveillance is necessary for determining inter-species transmission risks and is important due to the wide-range of bat species which may harbour potential pathogens. This study aimed to monitor coronaviruses (CoVs) and paramyxoviruses (PMVs) in bats roosting in northwest Italian regions. Our investigation was focused on CoVs and PMVs due to their proven ability to switch host and their zoonotic potential. Here we provide the phylogenetic characterization of the highly conserved polymerase gene fragments. Results: Family-wide PCR screenings were used to test 302 bats belonging to 19 different bat species. Thirty-eight animals from 12 locations were confirmed as PCR positive, with an overall detection rate of 12.6% [95% CI: 9.3-16.8]. CoV RNA was found in 36 bats belonging to eight species, while PMV RNA in three Pipistrellus spp. Phylogenetic characterization have been obtained for 15 alpha- CoVs, 5 beta-CoVs and three PMVs; moreover one P. pipistrellus resulted co-infected with both CoV and PMV. A divergent alpha-CoV clade from Myotis nattereri SpA is also described. The compact cluster of beta-CoVs from R. ferrumequinum roosts expands the current viral sequence database, specifically for this species in Europe. To our knowledge this is the first report of CoVs in Plecotus auritus and M. oxygnathus, and of PMVs in P. kuhlii. Conclusions: This study identified alpha and beta-CoVs in new bat species and in previously unsurveyed Italian regions. To our knowledge this represents the first and unique report of PMVs in Italy. The 23 new bat genetic sequences presented will expand the current molecular bat-borne virus databases. Considering the amount of novel bat-borne PMVs associated with the emergence of zoonotic infections in animals and humans in the last years, the definition of viral diversity within European bat species is needed. Performing surveillance studies within a specific geographic area can provide awareness of viral burden where bats roost in close proximity to spillover hosts, and form the basis for the appropriate control measures against potential threats for public health and optimal management of bats and their habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bats are hosts of a range of viruses, and their great diversity and unique characteristics that distinguish them from all other mammals have been related to the maintenance, evolution, and dissemination of these pathogens. Recently, very divergent hantaviruses have been discovered in distinct species of bats worldwide, but their association with human disease remains unclear. Considering the low success rates of detecting hantavirus RNA in bat tissues and that to date no hantaviruses have been isolated from bat samples, immunodiagnostic tools could be very helpful to understand pathogenesis, epidemiology, and geographic range of bat-borne hantaviruses. In this sense, we aimed to identify in silico immunogenic B-cell epitopes present on bat-borne hantaviruses nucleoprotein (NP) and verify if they are conserved among them and other selected members of Mammantavirinae, using a combination of (the three most used) different prediction algorithms, ELLIPRO, Discotope 2.0, and PEPITO server. To support our data, we in silico modeled 3D structures of NPs from representative members of bat-borne hantaviruses, using comparative and ab initio methods due to the absence of crystallographic structures of studied proteins or similar models in the Protein Data Bank. Our analysis demonstrated the antigenic complexity of the bat-borne hantaviruses group, showing a low sequence conservation of epitopes among members of its own group and a minor conservation degree in comparison to Orthohantavirus, with a recognized importance to public health. Our data suggest that the use of recombinant rodent-borne hantavirus NPs to cross-detect antibodies against bat- or shrew-borne viruses could underestimate the real impact of this virus in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]