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Politicians tend to try deflecting scandals. Based on an attribution theory-driven perspective on persuasion, however, politicians should proactively confess. In a preregistered, multiple-message design, we conduct controlled, random assignment experiments. A mediation model is tested. Inspired by crisis communication's change-of-meaning concept, the first variable appraises the extent to which voters perceive that the messaging indicates the politician is engaging in a cover-up. The second linkage is the politician's credibility. The outcome variable is voters' behavioral intentions. In Experiment 1 (N  =   905 U.S. voters), stealing thunder and apologizing outperform stonewalling, changing the subject, sequentially apologizing plus deflecting, or silence. Experiment 2 (N  =   277) finds that, in a sex scandal, stealing thunder and apologizing continue to perform equally well. Our theoretical contribution resides in enhancing the explanatory power of theories designed to explain image repair, as well as empirically testing the independent and combined role of apology and stealing thunder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

U.S. presidential candidates aspire to have a "presidential image." Political communication researchers, media pundits, political scientists, pollsters, campaign consultants, and other political marketers speculate about who is "presidential" and "unpresidential." No prior research, however, has empirically measured and validated a presidential image construct. Based on data collected prior to the 2020 U.S. presidential election (N = 618 registered likely voters), we tested congeneric models of presidentiality. Results indicated (1) a six-item, single-factor model fit well when single group confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were performed separately on ratings of Donald Trump (Study 1) and Joe Biden (Study 2), (2) multiple-group CFA indicated configural and metric invariance (generalizability across candidates) of the model, and (3) presidential image factor scores were strongly associated with the candidate participants planned to vote for in the election. The resultant indicators also advance theorizing that a U.S. president is expected to serve as both "head of state" through components of personability and as "head of government" through components of capability. Theoretical implications for political marketing are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although spin pervades mass communication, crisis communicators claim that they share society's aversion to spin. Grounded upon image repair theory and the practical model for ethical decision making, we report two experiments testing the reactions of crisis communicators exposed to a media interview in which a company spokesperson either spins or provides answers in line with normative crisis communication. Study 1 (N = 261 public relations practitioners and professional journalists) tests whether crisis communicators' cognitions align with those working in the media and with normative theory. Study 2 (N = 315 public relations students aspiring to work in the industry) provides a replication of Study 1 concerning the processing of spin, and adds perceived competence as a theoretical variable. The studies indicate that present and future crisis communicators have positive attitudes toward the organization under scrutiny, sense more goodwill, and perceive the message source as more competent, when normative crisis messaging is used rather than spin. Mediation analysis demonstrates that increased goodwill leads to more positive attitudes toward the organization, which bolsters organizational reputation. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing upon parasocial interaction theory, this paper examines the impact of narratives. A randomized experiment (N = 365) is reported in which a company spokesperson in a televised news interview is questioned about a scandal. The spokesperson replies to the journalist with (a) on-topic narratives, (b) off-topic narrative spinning, or (c) nonnarrative information. Multiple mediator modeling indicates nonnarrative information most effectively bolsters the audience's purchase intentions and reduces negative word-of-mouth. The effect is mediated by parasocial interaction reducing counterargument. Viewers react most adversely to off-topic narrative spinning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presidential candidates use different language intensity in different situations. However, the literature is unclear as to when they should use low- or high-intensity language. We applied language expectancy theory and Edwards' theory of presidential influence to situations varying in circumstances during a presidential campaign. Results indicated significant interactions between language intensity and economic conditions. In support of theories of persuasion applied to presidential campaign contexts, the effects of language intensity and circumstances each depend on the other. During exigent economic times, people consider a presidential candidate to have more presidentiality and trustworthiness when using high- instead of low-\intensity language. And during stable economic times, people consider a presidential candidate to have more presidentiality and trustworthiness when using low- instead of high-intensity language. Keywords: Language Expectancy Theory, presidentiality, presidential campaign, language intensity, Every presidential campaign season, candidates seem to vary their language as they try to persuade audiences to perceive them favorably. Many politicians do not seem to know when to express [...]

In this study, we examined the relationship between trait-like communication apprehension (CA) and resting alpha range asymmetry in the anterior cortex (AC). Although theory and research in cognitive neuroscience suggest that asymmetry in the AC constitutes a relatively stable, inborn, substrate of emotion, some studies indicate that asymmetry can be increased by experimentally induced transitory anxiety. Transitory anxiety produced by interaction with strangers covaries with trait-like CA, raising questions regarding whether asymmetrical electrical activity in the AC during data collection represents resting levels as assumed in the literature or transitory reactions to dyadic interaction with the experimenter. Because the question if unanswered poses issues for theory and approaches to remediation, we computed correlations among alpha range asymmetry in the AC gathered by electroencephalograph (EEG) while participants were at rest, transitory anxiety scores referring to the participants' interactions with the experimenter, and CA scores gathered four weeks earlier. Results revealed a partial correlation based on disattenuated correlations, r=0.51, p less than 0.05, between CA and EEG scores when the effects of transitory anxiety due to participant-experimenter interaction were removed. (Contains 5 notes and 2 tables.)

A substantial body of scholarship focused on the processes involved in message planning has accumulated in the communication literature. One of the central tenets of memory models upon which most of the message planning models are based is that dynamic memory systems organize and reorganize knowledge structures to maximize information processing efficiency. Accordingly, efficiency can be achieved by merely retrieving and enacting plans that have achieved goals previously under similar conditions. Plan failure, however, requires alteration or even production of an original plan. Although researchers have relied exclusively on output (e.g., response latency, memory tests) to draw inferences about planning processes, it is possible to observe cognitive processes more directly by measuring cortical responses. In the present study, electrical activity was monitored in the region of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during verbal planning. Results indicated that (a) electrical activity while planning under conditions that permitted enactment of verbal plans that required no modification was significantly lower than during planning in the initial trial but, (b) electrical activity while planning under conditions in which previous efforts failed was significantly higher than during planning in the initial trial. These results provide physical evidence for the hypothetical cognitive processes proposed in the cognitivist models of routine formation.

Research investigating public speaking anxiety treatments is subject to demand effects. This study tests the relative effectiveness of systematic desensitization (SD) and multiple treatment method (MT) containing visualization therapy against no-treatment and credible placebo controls. Data (N = 238) were collected at six points in a public speaking class. Reported anxiety decreased over time, but neither treatment outperformed the placebo control. Short-term gains were apparent for the MT group with participants selected on the basis of extreme high scores, but these gains did not persist relative to the control conditions over time. The current data suggest no evidence of lasting improvement of SD or MT treatments over a credible placebo control and enrollment in a standard public speaking class. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure and 4 notes.)

Notes that "variance accounted for"--calculated by squaring one of the various measures of association--is the most common estimate of experimental effect or strength of association reported in communication studies. Focuses on the basic principles and arguments underlying the use of unsquared measures of association, and the implications of this practice for communication theory and research. (SG)

Compares demand for speech preparation skills and trait public speaking apprehension as predictors of state anxiety experienced immediately before a graded classroom performance. Finds that public speaking apprehension significantly predicted anticipatory anxiety, while no significant effect was observed for planning skills. Examines findings within the context of the skills acquisition literature, communibiological theory, and classroom applications. (SR)

Replies to C. M. Condit's response to the authors' article on communibiology in the same issue of this journal, arguing that some of her challenges to communibiology are seriously flawed. (SR)

Replies to C. M. Condit's responses to the authors' articles and comments advancing a communibiological paradigm. Argues that a general misidentification of the level of abstraction (paradigm not theory) drives Condit's complaints about communibiology, and outlines several misrepresentations of the authors' position. (SR)

Examined satisfaction and relational maintenance strategies as a function of equity in 160 parent-adolescent relationships. Results indicate that parents' reports of satisfaction by perceived equity supported predictions by equity theory, but adolescents' reports of satisfaction offer only partial support of equity theory for parents in under benefitted and equitable relationships. (SLD)

Contends that communication apprehension represents individuals' expression of inborn, biological functioning, antecedent to social experience and therefore independent of social learning processes. Presents a temperament-based conceptualization of communication apprehension; integrates neurologically-based temperament functions into three fundamental propositions based on communication apprehension research; and discusses the implications of this theoretical position. (SR)

Delineates a metatheoretic rationale for a biologically based theory of verbal aggressiveness. Integrates neurobiological principles into the concept of verbal aggressiveness. Presents a working model, and addresses the implications of this theoretical position. (SR)

Contributes to scholarship on family communication, finding that fathers' perceptions of the appropriateness and effectiveness of tactics with oppositional sons was largely a function of their level of trait verbal aggressiveness, which was (1) negatively related to perceptions of appropriateness and effectiveness of supportive tactics, and (2) positively related to perceptions of appropriateness and effectiveness of coercive tactics. (SR)

Measures heart rates of both anxious and nonanxious speakers under both high- and low-intensity conditions. Finds that heart rates of anxious speakers were significantly higher than those of nonanxious speakers when both performed under low-intensity conditions but that heart rates were not different for anxious and nonanxious speakers when performing in high-intensity environments. (SR)

Investigates the empirical relationships between student ratings of teachers and student-reported performance. Finds that students discriminate between sociability and qualification-related aspects of teacher performance and that student ratings were not the product of "easy" grading practices. (SR)

Uses dispositional and situational versions of novelty, conspicuousness, subordinate status, and a measure of public speaking apprehension to predict state anxiety in response to a public speaking task. Finds that a model consisting of trait versions of novelty, conspicuousness, and subordinate status significantly predicts public speaking state anxiety. (MG)

As a result of Nelson's (2004) textual analysis of the communibiological literature, he concluded that the motive of the scholars contributing to the literature was the desire for status. In this essay, I expose the fallacious nature of Nelson's analysis and raise questions about the approach he employed.

Infante and Wigley's (1986) Verbal Aggressiveness Scale (VAS) is a widely accepted and frequently used measure of trait verbal aggression. Although the scale is almost always scored as if it were unidimensional, previous factor analytic studies provide evidence that it is multidimensional with two distinct factors. The present studies (N = 194 and 177) used confirmatory factor analysis to replicate the two-factor solution. The two-factor model was consistent with the data, and provides a better fit to the data than the unidimensional solution. The first factor, comprised of all aggressively worded, nonreflected items, appears to measure verbal aggressiveness as intended whereas the second factor, comprised of all reverse-scored items (benevolently worded), appears to measure a communication style related to other-esteem confirmation and supportiveness. Given this interpretation, it is recommended that only the 10 aggressively worded items be scored. Hamilton, Buck, and Chory-Assad, in an adversarial collaborative discussion, agree that the VAS is bidimensional, but offer an alternative conceptual model. They hold that the two factors reflect selfish individualism and prosocial cooperation. Keywords: Verbal aggressiveness; Measurement validation

It has long been recognized in the nonverbal communication literature that individual differences in extraversion are expected to be most clearly evident in expressive forms of nonverbal behavior. Although several studies designed to examine the correlation between extraversion and nonverbal behavior have been conducted, most attempts to summarize these studies reflect the inconsistent nature of the research findings. Indeed, correlations range from--.36 to .73. The extant literature summaries are limited to narrative reviews, however, which tend to be highly selective. The purpose of this study was to meta-analyze the relevant studies. Results indicated that the mean correlation coefficient weighted for sample size was .13 for the entire sample of studies. Although 63% of the variance was attributable to sampling error, the distribution of correlations was heterogeneous. The remaining variance was due to two methodological artifacts: sample size and the number of nonverbal behaviors coded. For example, hierarchical breakdowns by moderator indicated that the mean correlation was .50 for highly focused studies--those in which researchers concentrated on a few behaviors and limited coding to 40 or fewer subjects. A cognitive-overload model for these findings is offered and corroborated by findings from other research domains. Implications for communication research and theory are discussed. In addition to clarifying the empirical relationship [TEXT INCOMPLETE IN ORIGINAL SOURCE]

This study was undertaken to examine whether the relationships reported in the communication literature between Eysenck's BIG THREE personality dimensions and self-reported patterns of communication behavior remain robust when observation-based measures are used in place of self-reports. Target participants' responses to measures of these three personality dimensions were used to predict peer ratings of two patterns of communication behavior, verbal aggressiveness and affinity-seeking competence. Composite measures for variables were based on the results of confirmatory factor analysis, ensuring both internal and external consistency (parallelism). Results of a path analysis, in which targets' responses to personality measures were employed as exogenous variables and peer ratings of verbal aggressiveness and affinity-seeking competence were used as endogenous variables indicated that these data fit the model extremely well. Importantly, (1) substantial variation in peer rated affinity-seeking competence (R = .55) was attributed to the direct effects of extraversion and neuroticism (negative coefficient), and (2) substantial variation of peer rated verbal aggressiveness (R = .58) was attributable to direct effects of psychoticism and extraversion (negative coefficient) and an indirect effect of extraversion and neuroticism mediated by affinity-seeking competence (negative coefficient). Implications for communication theory and research are discussed.

Over the past ten years, studies comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twin pairs in terms of intelligence, personality, and social behavior have increasingly appeared in major research journals. Importantly, many of the variables examined are central constructs in communication theory. Assertiveness, social anxiety, self-monitoring, and empathy are but a few of the variables studied in the twins literature. In the present study, mean heritability estimates for three clusters (interpersonal affiliation, aggressiveness, and social anxiety) were computed. The studies selected for analysis focused on variables that have been frequently cited in mainstream reference texts and/or professional journals in communication. Conservative data analytic procedures were adopted. Specifically, (1) unless evidence of additive gene effects was absolute, nonadditive gene effects were assumed; (2) unless reliability coefficients were reported in a study, the highest reliability reported in the literature for the measure was employed in correction procedures; and (3) observer ratings, although imperfect, were not corrected for attenuation due to error in measurement. Results indicated that interpersonal affiliation was 70% heritable, aggressiveness was 58% heritable, and social anxiety was 65% heritable. Notably, heritability estimates were not larger for self-report measures than for behavioral observation. Criticisms of the twins design, possible moderators, and theoretical implications are discussed.

Recently, a model of communication theory and research has appeared in the literature within which stable individual differences in communication behavior represent individual differences in activation thresholds of neurobiological systems. The neurobiological systems thought to underly communication traits and behavior are assumed to be primarily due to genetic inheritance. As such, the model assigns a limited role to adaptability in social situations, instead positing communication adaptability as an inherited trait. In the present study, heritability estimates for the dimensions of communicative adaptability were derived from correlations based on identical and fraternal twins' responses to a multidimensional communicative adaptability measure. Results indicated that social composure was 88% heritable, wit was 90% heritable, social confirmation was 37% heritable, articulation ability, and appropriate disclosure were 0% heritable. Theoretical implications are discussed.

In recent years, communication scholars have begun to examine the role of trait verbal aggressiveness in shaping relationships between parents and children. The present study examined the interactive effects of parents' trait verbal aggressiveness and frustration induced by interaction with children on parents' subjective experience of anger. Specifically, we hypothesized that parent anger in response to children's noncompliance is a function of an ordinal interaction between parents' trait verbal aggressiveness and situational frustration. A multiple regression equation employing (1) parents' trait verbal aggressiveness scores, situational frustration scores, and a multiplicative function as predictor variables, and (2) parent anger scores as the dependant variable, accounted for 33.93 percent of the variance in anger scores with only the trait verbal aggressiveness X frustration interaction contributing significantly to the equation. These results confirm the interactionist perspective upon which the hypothesis was founded.

In previous research, the degree to which men felt confirmed by their fathers significantly predicted their female relational partners' reluctance about interacting with them. Drawing from the contemporary men's literature and confirmation theory, men's listening style - as determined by female partner's reports - was advanced as a mediator of the confirmation-partner apprehension relationship. Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated (1) a direct effect of men's perceived confirmation from father on their listening style, (2) a direct effect of men's listening style on female partners' discomfort while interacting with them, and (3) direct effects of female partner's dyadic communication apprehension and men's perceived confirmation apprehension and men's perceived confirmation from father on female partners' reluctance to communicate with their relational partners. Theoretical implications are discussed.

This research used a confirmation/disconfirmation framework to analyze adult males' perceptions of their relationships with their fathers. In the present study, the degree to which men felt confirmed by their fathers was used to predict relational partners' reluctance to engage in relational interaction and discomfort during such interactions. The effect of dyadic communication apprehension, the anxiety associated with one-to-one communication, was statistically controlled. Results of multivariate regression analyses indicated that (1) females' dyadic communication apprehension accounted for a small but statistically significant percentage of variance in their discomfort scores, (2) males' perceived confirmation from father explained a statistically significant percent of variance in 'reluctance,' and (3) a statistically significant nonlinear effect was observed for perceived confirmation on reluctance. Overall, the predictor set explained 26.62% of the variance in the dependent variable set. Implications are discussed.

The study examined the relationship between adult sons' responses to their fathers' son-directed messages and satisfaction with those relationships. Descriptions of father messages that typified the communication between fathers and sons were solicited from adult males. Adjectives and phrases were derived from these descriptions and were presented to a second sample in seven-point bipolar adjective form. Factor analysis yielded three factors labeled 'Supportive-Interest,' 'Criticism,' and 'Sarcasm.' All three factors correlated significantly with adult sons' ratings of satisfaction with their son-father relationship. Multiple regression, using the three factors as predictors, accounted for approximately 60% of the variance in satisfaction scores.

The present study was designed to explore the empirical relationship between adult sons' communication apprehension regarding their fathers and satisfaction with those relationships. Results indicated that (1) apprehension and satisfaction were negatively correlated, (2) a descending nonlinear function best described the relationship, (3) both frequency and intensity of apprehension experiences contributed to the prediction of satisfaction, and (4) father communication apprehension was empirically distinct from general dyadic communication apprehension. These results were initially derived from the responses of a screening sample and were subsequently cross-validated. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Although a considerable body of research has accumulated which establishes correlations among communication apprehension, communication state anxiety and behavioral disruption, theoretical speculations regarding the causal nature of those relationships are based mostly on cross-sectional data. In the present study, data pertaining to all three variables were collected across time and causal models of the relationships were tested. The results of path analysis indicated that behavioral disruption and state anxiety were predictive of subsequent communication apprehension scores. These findings were consistent with expectations based on the 'James-Lange' theory of emotion and the assimilation theory of communication apprehension. On the other hand, no effect on behavior was detected for communication apprehension. Theoretical implications for these findings are discussed.

This article expands situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) to narrative persuasion. In a randomized experiment featuring a news interview of a scandalized company, an organization's spokesperson responds to a journalist's questions through (a) on-topic narratives, (b) off-topic (spinning) narratives, or (c) nonnarrative information. Consistent with SCCT, on-topic narratives and nonnarrative information reduce the public's blame toward the organization, enhancing attitudes toward the organization, and ultimately bolstering the company's image. However, the public ascribes more responsibility to the organization for causing the crisis when the spokesperson subverts questions through narrative spinning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results suggest that, without competing motivational forces, students high in communication apprehension (CA) spend less time talking than do students in low CA. (PD)