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This article analyses the different ways in which fatherhood is exercised in Spain and Norway. Family transformations and the redefinition of social roles assigned to men and women have brought changes in the meanings ascribed to paternity by Western societies. The two countries analyzed have undergone these changes in different ways, as they reflect different social interpretations about fathering, dissimilar participation of women in the labor market and diverse development of family policies. The aim of the article is therefore to analyze the structural elements that shape the behavior of fathers in Spain and Norway. Methodological triangulation was applied, combining in-depth interviews in both countries with a quantitative analysis of the main databases within this area. The empirical analysis is undertaken within the structural theory perspective, which takes into account the existence of elements external to the families which influence the distribution of work within the private sphere.

This paper presents a stochastic dynamic mathematical model, in which a Family Policy Index (XFPI) is included to measure and compare two different models of provision of resources to support families with children from 0 to 3 years old. The main variables in this model are the XFPI, fertility, mortality, emigration and immigration rates. This mathematical model was validated in two different countries, Spain and Norway, during the 2007–2015 period. A sensitivity analysis was applied to simulate the future trend (2016–2030), examining the influence of providing public pre-school services (0 to 3 years) on (XISF). The results obtained show that these services may indeed have an influence on fertility rates, as long as they are developed extensively.

Este artículo analiza las iniciativas de cuidado comunitario surgidas en la ciudad de Madrid durante los últimos años y cuyo objetivo es promover la participación de la comunidad en el cuidado de los menores durante la primera etapa de la infancia. El trabajo reflexiona sobre la presencia de lo comunitario en los discursos de sus participantes y analiza la capacidad de estos grupos para revertir las desigualdades que plantea la actual organización social de los cuidados. Los resultados muestran que, si bien la composición y estructura de estas iniciativas ha conseguido dotarlas de una fuerte identidad social que genera fuertes vínculos comunitarios entre sus miembros, esta misma identidad limita su capacidad de traspasar las fronteras de estos grupos y contribuir a una transformación social más amplia. This paper analyses the co-parenting groups projects emerging in Madrid over the last years. The document explores the concept of community applied in these community-led initiatives for childcare and their capacity to overcome the existing inequalities of the current care system. Results show that participants develop a strong sense of belonging to these care-oriented communities, a shared social identity that limits their capacity to reach other groups and contribute to a larger process of social change. Este trabajo ha sido llevado a cabo dentro del marco del proyecto 'Cuidados en el ámbito comunitario. Experiencias, prácticas y vínculos para el sostenimiento de la vida en España y América Latina' (CSO 2016-77960-R) financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. Ha contado asimismo con el apoyo del Instituto de Investigación I-Communitas, Institute for Advanced Social Research de la Universidad Pública de Navarra.

Número Monográfico: Migraciones, trabajos de cuidados y riesgos sociales: las contradicciones del bienestar en el contexto de la COVID-19 Este artículo analiza el impacto que tuvo la crisis de la COVID-19 en el sector del empleo del hogar. El objetivo principal reside en reflexionar sobre la relación existente entre las consecuencias coyunturales provocadas por la crisis socio-sanitaria y las formas estructurales de valoración y funcionamiento de este sector. Para ello, se analiza la evolución de la contratación en este sector durante los primeros meses de la pandemia así como las iniciativas de protección legislativa y socio-sanitaria puestas en marcha para las trabajadoras de este ámbito laboral. A pesar de su relevancia, las medidas adoptadas por parte de las administraciones públicas fueron tardías e incompletas, provocando un progresivo reposicionamiento de los cuidados en los márgenes de la prioridad social. This article presents an analysis of the household em-ployment sector during 2020, taking into account the consequences experienced during the socio-sanitary crisis of COVID together with the traditional precariousness of this economic field. The main aim is to examine the relation between the concrete measures taken dur-ing the socio-sanitary crisis and the structural forms of assessment and operation of this sector. To do this, the evolution of hiring in this sector during the first months of the pandemic is analyzed, as well as the legislative and socio-sanitary protection initiatives im-plemented for workers in this labour field. Despite their relevance, the measures adopted by the public administrations were late and incomplete, causing a progressive repositioning of care on the mar-gins of social priorities.

This paper presents the Family Policy Index (XFPI), an analytical tool designed to measure and compare different models of countries’ provision of educational services, parental leave and economic transfers to support families with children aged 0–3 years. The objective of this index is twofold: from a scientific perspective, it aims at measuring and comparing the overall support families receive through public policies; it also serves advocacy purposes, since the index may offer guidance to policy makers on best practices and may also increase citizens’ awareness of the efforts each country is making to support families. The XFPI has been conceptualized following a gender equality principle, considering that policies must involve both mothers and fathers in the exercise of their equal responsibility as parents. The XFPI was measured for two countries, Spain and Norway, in the 1999–2014 period, to test its applicability to different real scenarios and models of Welfare State with different policies and intentions, in which responsibility for childcare falls on two different agents: the State in Norway, and the family in Spain. The results show the extremely low development of Spanish pre-educational services for children 0–3 and, simultaneously, the existing limitations of Norwegian family policies in respect of gender equality. The index has the capacity to provide robust results applicable in different countries and to project into the future the potential scenarios that countries may face when designing new policies.

This article analyses the knowledge, perception and participation of university students in NGOs. The social group analysed has a very positive perception towards volunteering as well as a life sit...

This paper examines the policies and resources regarding the care of children under three years of age in two European countries that represent two different models of Welfare State, on the one hand Spain, framed in the Mediterranean or familist model and, on the other hand, Norway, enclosed in the Scandinavian model. Indeed, the care of children under three years is a matter of particular relevance since it influences directly on work-life balance strategies and also on gender and social equality. These aspects have been analyzed using the most relevant theories about the principles and motivations of the different Welfare State models. Simultaneously we have examined the existing resources in both countries and the challenges faced as a result of the social transformations occurred in recent decades and, specifically, the modifications in family policies and resources during the current financial crisis.

This article analyzes the relationship between family policies focused on childcare for children under the age of three and fertility levels. In the current context of very low European fertility, it is important to understand whether public support for families can help increase fertility or if, on the contrary, existing fertility levels are the exact reflection of the reproductive desires of families, regardless of the family-support of the policies that may exist in each country. This analysis was carried out through a stochastic dynamic mathematical model that incorporates both demographic variables and family policy variables. A sensitivity analysis was carried out on Spain and Norway, two countries that have very different models of family policies. This sensitivity analysis allows establishing a relationship between the existing family policies and the total fertility rate and also the expected evolution of fertility rates in the future, if the current family policies remain constant. The results showed that the models which lead to an increase in fertility are those which are most generous and which also incorporate a gender perspective, so they allow the identification of good practices and maximum levels of policy efficiency in regards to different objectives such as increase fertility and advances towards gender equality. By contrast, models with erratic and insufficient support clearly contribute to maintaining fertility at very low levels and perpetuate unequal gender relationships. There is, therefore, space for state agency to develop more effective public policies in both dimensions. This study was conducted under two competitive research projects: Ecuaciones en Derivadas Parciales Singulares (MTM2017-85449-P) and Childcare Practices among Families in Spain: Agents, Practices and Satisfaction (CSO2017-84634-R), funded by the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. It was also supported by the I-Communitas Research Institute—Institute for Advanced Social Research of the Public University of Navarra and the Department of Social Analysis of the Carlos III University of Madrid.

Las universidades son espacios a los que determinados estudiantes no acceden o en los que encuentran destacados obstáculos para permanecer. Avanzar hacia la construcción de univer-sidades donde todos puedan aprender y participar es una tarea inaplazable que muchas insti-tuciones desconocen cómo enfrentar. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo diseñar un sistema de in-dicadores que facilite a las instituciones universitarias la autoevaluación de las condiciones que ofrecen a sus estudiantes con respecto a la inclusión. Con una metodología basada en la revisión bibliográfica y la validación de indicadores por 18 expertos/as mediante el método Delphi, se presentan un total de 30 indicadores agrupados en seis dimensiones claves. Estas dimensiones hacen referencia a la cultura institucional, acceso equitativo, aprendizaje centrado en el alum-nado, bienestar y participación, movilidad y empleabilidad y logro académico. Para facilitar el uso del instrumento, se acompaña cada indicador de una breve descripción, una medida o es-cala de evaluación, la periodicidad con la que conviene ser medido y el posible nivel de desagre-gación. Como conclusión, se reconoce la adecuación del método Delphi para la validación de indicadores y se destaca la contribución de los instrumentos de evaluación como herramientas que permiten evidenciar las situaciones de desigualdad universitaria. Se subraya la urgencia de revertir el modelo universitario hacia un modelo enfocado en el diseño de estrategias que per-mitan avanzar hacia la verdadera inclusión, Universities are spaces that certain students struggle to access or where they find outstanding obstacles to remain. Moving towards the construction of universities where all can learn and participate in equal opportunities is an unplayable task that many institutions do not know how to face. This work aims to design a system of indicators that facilitates universities to self-assessing the conditions they offer their students with respect to inclusion. With a method-ology based on the literature review and validation of indicators by 18 experts using the Delphi method, a total of 30 indicators are presented grouped into six key dimensions. These dimen-sions refer to institutional culture, equitable access, student-centered learning, well-being and participation, mobility and employability and achievement. To facilitate the use of this instru-ment, each indicator is accompanied by a brief description, a measure and scale of evaluation, the periodicity with which it should be measured and the possible level of disaggregation. In conclusion, the adequacy of the Delphi method for the validation of indicators is recognized and the contribution of evaluation instruments is highlighted as tools that allow to demon-strate situations of university inequality. It is considered relevant the urgency of reversing the university model towards a model focused on the design of strategies that allow progress to-wards true inclusion

Vivimos por fortuna un momento histórico donde el concepto de familia se ha diversificado. La sociedad española ha experimentado profundos cambios sociales en las últimas cuatro décadas que han modificado las fotos familiares para siempre. En España, este proceso de cambio no ha estado exento de polémica y ha sido acogido de forma diferente desde distintas posiciones políticas. El debate que como sociedad debemos abordar con respecto a las familias, por tanto, no puede ni debe centrarse en la supuesta legitimidad de unas sobre otras, sino en cuáles son los recursos que necesitan las familias actuales para ejercer sus funciones de crianza y cuidado, entendiendo que esta diversificación familiar ha supuesto cambios importantes respecto a los recursos con los que cuentan para desempeñar estas responsabilidades. En este artículo se propone reflexionar sobre cómo se ha gestionado el cuidado familiar tradicionalmente y a qué retos se enfrentan las familias actuales para responder a las necesidades de cuidados de sus miembros.

In the rural areas of Spain the aging population trend is particularly acute, and these regions are also characterized by high sex ratios. These are the demographic consequences of an intense rural exodus that started in 1950. This paper addresses the strategies that families from these areas have put in place to guarantee care for the elderly in these limited demographic contexts. It quantifies the demographic change from 1910 to 2010 and analyzes current mechanisms for organizing social care. The methodology includes semi-structured interviews and secondary information obtained from censuses. The results show the emergence of new care strategies, the diversification of social agents involved in care, and the transformation of traditional gender relations. All these changes are conceptualized as social adaptation strategies that increase resilience in rural areas.

This article examines the development of household structures in the province of Navarre (Spain) between 1910 and 2001. The data show that the traditional coexistence of two family systems (stem and nuclear families) had already become diffuse by 1950 as a result of the spread of neolocal family structures. However, study of household structures within the perspective of the life cycle shows that different family structure models have persisted within the region. The households of elderly people follow two patterns, reflecting the continued existence of different interpretations as to how their care should be organized. This work has been supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain (CSO2012-31206).

Este artículo analiza la viabilidad del modelo tradicional de cuidados para atender a las personas mayores en las zonas rurales en la actualidad. Este modelo se caracteriza por estar feminizado y ser informal (no profesional) y, a pesar de que desde hace años se reconoce su ‘insostenibilidad’, la realidad es que un 80% de las personas que cuidan en España siguen siendo familiares, y las personas mayores siguen expresando su preferencia por la familia como el marco ideal en el que ser atendido. Vivimos, por tanto, un momento de transición en el que se asume la crisis del modelo, pero en el que la familia mantiene su valor simbólico como cuidadora. En este periodo de transición, las zonas rurales presentan la complejidad añadida de ser áreas que cuentan con unos recursos familiares muy limitados; la emigración ha ido reduciendo sus cohortes más jóvenes durante décadas, provocando un elevado envejecimiento poblacional, y son las mujeres quienes han emigrado en mayor proporción, de forma que ellas, tradicionales cuidadoras, no están presentes para ejercer este rol. Este trabajo reflexiona sobre estos cambios y su impacto en las relaciones de género. Para ello, aporta un estudio demográfico a partir de datos padronales, proporcionando nuevas evidencias para analizar la insostenibilidad del modelo tradicional de cuidar. This paper explores the feasibility of the traditional model of care provision in rural areas of Spain. This traditional familialistic model relies on families, specifically on women, to secure care provision for the elderly population. The model has been widely recognized as obsolete and unsustainable due to the integration of women into the labour market and the changes in family structures. However, in Spain, 80% of care providers are still family members, and the elderly population shows a clear preference for the family as the ideal care provider. Thus, we are experiencing a transitional moment with a consensus about the crisis of the model of care but in which families retain the responsibility of providing care. Rural areas are facing a peculiar situation in this regard, since they have experienced a more intense ageing process: the rural-urban exodus explains the limited availability of family members and the masculinization of population, since women migrated in a higher proportion than men. Thus, women, traditional caregivers, may not be present to secure this role. This paper analyzes these changes and their impact on gender relations through a demographic study, using population registers. Trabajo llevado a cabo dentro del proyecto Cuidadores de mayores: Situación ante la Ley de Dependencia y evaluación de programas de apoyo a los mayores (2009- 2013), financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (actual MINECO), CSO2009-10290.