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Urinary tract infections (UTIs) and genital tract infections (GTIs) are both very common infectious diseases. Thus, accuracy and rapidity in recognition and treatment of sexually transmitted urogenital tract infections (ST-UGTIs) is a major concern in global public health systems. The application of reliable, accurate diagnostic tools is the key to definite detection, identification and treatment. This literature review focused on different characteristics of UGTIs in patients and the importance of diagnostic methodologies. The articles published and indexed from 1980 through October 2018 in the databases of PubMed and MEDLINE, as well as the Google Scholar web search engine, were collected and studied. MeSH keywords of "Sexual intercourse", "Urinary Tract Infections", "Genital Tract Infections" and "Toll-Like Receptors" were used for searching articles. Then, the proper articles (original and review articles) were subjected to a very rigorous selection process. The clinical symptoms and signs or asymptomatic properties of UTIs and GTIs are similar and often overlap. In many cases, the lack of suitable diagnostic techniques leads to misdiagnosed/undignosed GTIs and overdiagnosed UTIs. The outcome of poor diagnostics is failure of definite identification and treatment. The application of advanced techniques comprising PCR, microarray and next-generation sequencing promises to be more effective, together with the use of the microbial pattern of the individual's UGT to provide reliable detection, identification and definite treatment. This will be an option in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Targeted immune therapies are a modern approach to harness the immunity to treat cancer patients. Exosomes (EXOs) are nano-vesicles used for drug delivery in cancer treatment. We aimed to assess the effectiveness of novel designed EXO structures for immunotherapy alone and in combination with other components in animal models. EXO derived from untreated macrophage (EXO), WEHI-164 cell lysate treated EXO (EXO Lys ), HSP70 enriched WEHI-164 cell lysate treated EXO (EXO HSP70 ), Naloxone (NLX) treated EXO (EXO NLX ), Propranolol (PRP) treated EXO (EXO PRP ) and staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) anchored to three kinds of EXOs designated as EXO/SEB, EXO Lys /SEB, EXO HSP70 /SEB were purified from J774 cell line. To determine the therapeutic effect of these novel constructed nano-vesicles, the animals were immunized with different types of EXOs at weekly intervals for three consecutive weeks and in the fourth week the WEHI-164 tumor cells were injected. Finally, the splenocyte proliferation was examined by MTT assay and tumor growth was also determined in each group. We observed that EXO HSP was more effective than EXO and EXO Lys to decrease the number of tumor cells and to stimulate immune responses in animal models (P < 0.05). In SEB-anchored EXO group, EXO HSP70 /SEB has the potency to stimulate immune responses more efficiently than EXO/SEB and EXO Lys /SEB and the tumor was not palpable until 28th day which may refer to synergistic effect of HSP70 and SEB on immunity. In EXO NLX treated mice proliferative response decreased significantly compared to control group (P > 0.05) and the tumor number was constant within a period of 28 days and EXO PRP may delay the occurrence of the fibrosarcoma tumor; After development of fibrosarcoma the number of tumors diminished over the studied period of time. Our results demonstrate that HSP70 enriched EXO is an effective immunoadjuvant in cancer immunotherapy and causes tumor regression in animal model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (EVs) have come forth into notice as possible important agent to mediate host-pathogen interactions. In this scientific research, the authors have tried to find out the effect of EVs derived from Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LDEVs) on the apoptosis induction in HepG2 cell line. The EVs were purified from the conditioned medium of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG using ultrafiltration and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The HepG2 cells were treated with different concentrations of purified LDEVs and the cytotoxicity and their effects on the expression of bcl-2 and bax genes were assessed by the MTT assay and semi-quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. The MTT assay showed that only 100 μg/ml of LDEVs had a significant cytotoxic effect on cancer cells ( p < 0.05). The apoptotic index ( bax / bcl2 expression ratio) was significantly increased after treating with 50 and 100 μg/ml LDEVs ( p < 0.05). Increased bax/bcl-2 ratio was led to cancer cell death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DNA vaccination –a third generation vaccine-is a modern approach to stimulate humoral and cellular responses against different diseases such as infectious diseases, cancer and autoimmunity. These vaccines are composed of a gene that encodes sequences of a desired protein under control of a proper (eukaryotic or viral) promoter. Immune response following DNA vaccination is influenced by the route and the dose of injection. In addition, antigen presentation following DNA administration has three different mechanisms including antigen presentation by transfected myocytes, transfection of professional antigen presenting cells (APCs) and cross priming. Recently, it has been shown that bacterial toxins and their components can stimulate and enhance immune responses in experimental models. A study demonstrated that DNA fusion vaccine encoding the first domain (DOM) of the Fragment C (FrC) of tetanus neurotoxin (CTN) coupled with tumor antigen sequences is highly immunogenic against colon carcinoma. DNA toxin vaccines against infectious and autoimmune diseases are less studied until now. All in all, this novel approach has shown encouraging results in animal models, but it has to go through adequate clinical trials to ensure its effectiveness in human. However, it has been proven that these vaccines are safe, multifaceted and simple and can be used widely in organisms which may be of advantage to public health in the near future. This paper outlines the mechanism of the action of DNA vaccines and their possible application for targeting infectious diseases, cancer and autoimmunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human skin encompasses a vast variety of microorganisms which construct the structure of skin microflora. Bacteria and yeasts may be the pioneers of the human skin normal flora. The anatomical situations and physicochemical conditions determine the demography of the microbial populations. Among different types of microbial populations, Propionibacterium acnes is the predominant member in the skin areas of back, face and chest. Although this bacterium is part of the normal flora, Propionibacterium acnes contributes to the disease of acne vulgaris. By the progression of scientific disciplines such as Microbiology, Genetics, and Molecular Biology, it is going to be clear that some strains of Propionibacterium acnes are useful and good bacteria and some strains are harmful and bad bacteria. Therefore, in this review, the authors have a look on different characteristics of P.acnes and the related skin disease of acne vulgaris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The novel human coronavirus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), which results in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has caused a serious threat to global public health. Therefore, many studies are performed on the causes and prevalence of this disease and the possible co-occurrence of the infection with other viral and bacterial pathogens is investigated. Respiratory infections predispose patients to co‐infections and these lead to increased disease severity and mortality. Numerous types of antibiotics have been employed for the prevention and treatment of bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infections in patients with a SARS-CoV-2 infection. Although antibiotics do not directly affect SARS‐CoV‐2, viral respiratory infections often result in bacterial pneumonia. It is possible that some patients die from bacterial co‐infection rather than virus itself. Therefore, bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infection are considered critical risk factors for the severity and mortality rates of COVID‐19. In this review, we will summarize the bacterial co‐infection and secondary bacterial infection in some featured respiratory viral infections, especially COVID‐19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Bacterial skin diseases caused by drug-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis are known as a big problem in the field of treating management of infectious diseases. Progression of resistant strains has led to use phototherapy in parallel with pharmacotherapy. In this short survey, we tried to obtain a logic Ultraviolet Radiation protocol to induce the process of programmed cell death in irradiated Staphylococcus epidermidis. Methods: The samples of Staphylococcus epidermidis were classified in 4 categories. Each plate which is known as a category included well-grown colonies of bacteria. One plate was taken as a control sample and the left three plates were irradiated by UVB (302 nm) in 10 minutes from the distance of 8 cm. The irradiated plates were kept in a dark cell and for 1, 24 and 72 hours respectively. Then, total genomic DNA molecules pertaining to all of the colonies comprising control and irradiated samples were harvested by DNP kit and the extracted DNA molecules were running upon the 1% agarose gel together with ethidium bromide. Results: Control and irradiated samples were studied for probable changes in their macroscopic, microscopic characteristics and then the DNA pattern relating to each group was detected for any variation including smear or DNA laddering bands. No changes were observed in different bacterial properties. No apoptosis were observed in irradiated samples. Conclusion: UVB is a strong apoptosis stimulus in organisms. However, authors of the present study strongly reject the apoptotic effect of UVB irradiation in the format of the present protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cancer is known as a considerable disease with high morbidity and mortality within adult's populations. There are different types of cancers with a wide range of distributions and risk factors worldwide. Vaginal cancers are limited but may lead to high morbidity and mortality. Vaginal cancers have several predisposing factors, but HPV is recognized as the most important viral causative agent for vaginal cancers. There are different types of diagnostics for detecting HPV vaginal cancers. A qualified Pap smear is recognized as an invaluable screening program for early detection of HPV vaginal cancers. The incidence of vaginal cancers has significantly decreased in industrialized countries because of qualified performance of Pap smear. The most morbidity and mortality relating to vaginal cancers are reported from developing countries. There are different types of treating procedures including cryotherapy, laser therapy, electrosurgical procedures, radiotherapy and pharmacotherapy. The result of treatments in patients is checked via molecular diagnostic techniques which are known as gold standard approaches. Limitation of risk factors and application of vaccines are confirmed as favor preventing methods. The aim of this article is to review the subtitle of vaginal cancer staging, epidemiology of HPV vaginal cancers, viral characteristics and pathogenesis of HPV vaginal cancers, clinical demonstrations of HPV vaginal cancers diagnosis, treatment and prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Candidiasis is a wide spread opportunistic fungal infectious disease which involves different parts of human body. Based on anatomic location, there are several kinds of candidiasis caused by opportunistic dimorphic fungus of Candida. Oral candidiasis as a common fungal mouth infection is divided into two groups of acute and chronic forms. Acute Pseudomembranous Candidiasis (thrush), Acute Erythematous Candidiasis (AEC), Chronic Erythematous Candidiasis (CEC), and Chronic Hyperplastic Candidiasis (CHC) are four types of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Age and risks factors are two important variables that change the incidence rate of candidiasis. Thrush is the most common pediatric oral candidiasis. Parental consciousness, appropriate diet, proper hygiene, accurate diagnosis, well management and definitive treatment are required to prevent, to control and to treat pediatric fungal infection of thrush. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The pathogenic disturbance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is known as a rare but invasive nosocomialfungal infection. This survey is focused on the evaluation of apoptosis-triggering effects of UVB-irradiation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Materials and Methods: The well-growth colonies of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) were irradiated within an interval of to minutes by UVB-light (302 nm). Subsequently, the harvested DNA molecules of control and UV-exposed yeast colonies were run through the 1% agarose gel elect rophoresis comprising the luminescent dye of ethidium bromide. Outcomes: No unusual patterns including DNA laddering bands or smears were detected. Conclusions: The applied procedure for UV exposure was not effective for inducing apoptosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. So, it needs another UV-radiation protocol for inducing apoptosis phenomenon in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The pathogenic disturbance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is known as a rare but invasive nosocomial fungal infection. This survey is focused on the evaluation of apoptosis-triggering effects of UVB-irradiation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Materials and Methods: The well-growth colonies of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) were irradiated within an interval of 10 minutes by UVB-light (302 nm). Subsequently, the harvested DNA molecules of control and UV-exposed yeast colonies were run through the 1% agarose gel electrophoresis comprising the luminescent dye of ethidium bromide. Outcomes: No unusual patterns including DNA laddering bands or smears were detected. Conclusions: The applied procedure for UV exposure was not effective for inducing apoptosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. So, it needs another UV-radiation protocol for inducing apoptosis phenomenon in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive bacterium. In recent years, the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections has been steadily increased around the world. Nowaday, the phototherapy is a suitable alternative as a cheap and effective treatment and in some cases can be used in parallel with chemotherapy. That is why, in this survey, we tried to detect the eventual apoptosis feature in UVB-irradiated colonies of Staphylococcus aureus. Materials and Methods: The bacterial sample was harvested from the microbial collection center of Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods branch, Microbiology laboratory. The colonies of Staphylococcus aureus were radiated by UVB beam and then, the DNA molecules belonging to control and irradiated colonies were extracted by DNP kit. Next after DNA extraction, the DNA molecules mixed in loading dye were run in 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. Following the electrophoresis, the UV transilluminator was used to observe the orange luminescent DNA bands formed in agarose gel. Outcomes: As it was indicated by experimental practices in the present investigation, no abnormalities, neither DNA laddering bands (apoptosis) nor smears (necrosis), were detected. Conclusions: According to the results showing the lack of DNA denaturation after UVB light exposure, a hypothesis could be advanced on the role of the Heat shock proteins and in particular, HSP70 which would act as an anti-apoptotic mechanism inhibiting the induction of apoptosis in UVB lightexposed colonies of Staphylococcus aureus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive bacterium. In recent years, the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections has been steadily increased around the world. Nowaday, the phototherapy is a suitable alternative as a cheap and effective treatment and in some cases can be used in parallel with chemotherapy. That is why, in this survey, we tried to detect the eventual apoptosis feature in UVB-irradiated colonies of Staphylococcus aureus. Materials and Methods: The bacterial sample was harvested from the microbial collection center of Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods branch, Microbiology laboratory. The colonies of Staphylococcus aureus were radiated by UVB beam and then, the DNA molecules belonging to control and irradiated colonies were extracted by DNP kit. Next after DNA extraction, the DNA molecules mixed in loading dye were run in 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. Following the electrophoresis, the UV transilluminator was used to observe the orange luminescent DNA bands formed in agarose gel. Outcomes: As it was indicated by experimental practices in the present investigation, no abnormalities, neither DNA laddering bands (apoptosis) nor smears (necrosis), were detected. Conclusions: According to the results showing the lack of DNA denaturation after UVB light exposure, a hypothesis could be advanced on the role of the Heat shock proteins and in particular, HSP70 which would act as an anti-apoptotic mechanism inhibiting the induction of apoptosis in UVB light-exposed colonies of Staphylococcus aureus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Bacillus anthracis as the bacterial agent of anthrax, is spread in different geographical zones around the world. The purpose of this survey was to observe eventual apoptotic reactions in total genomic DNA of UVB irradiated colonies of Bacillus anthracis. Materials and Methods: The colonies of Bacillus anthracis were exposed to UVB ray for 10 minutes; then, the DNA molecules of control and irradiated colonies were extracted. Finally, the DNA samples mixed in loading dye, were run in 1% agarose gel containing fluorescent dye of ethidium bromide to produce visible DNA bands. Outcomes: Neither smear nor DNA laddering band were detected upon the agarose gel. Conclusions: According to the present protocol, the UVB ray can not induce apoptosis feature in colonies of Bacillus anthracis. It seems that the recovery and protection systems in Bacillus anthracis can resist against eventual UVB disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The most common uropathogenic Gram negative bacteria are Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The purpose of this study was to determine the three most frequent bacterial agents causing Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) in patients who referred to Central Laboratory of Dr. Shariati Hospital, during 2 years (January 2006- December 2007). Materials and methods: The registered data were checked and collected by the questionnaires as a retrospective epidemiological survey. Then, the Chi Square tests were performed by SPSS software. Outcomes: The results of the present survey revealed that, the first two bacterial agents in different seasons were similar through the surveillance while the third one was variable. The first two frequent bacteria were respectively, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Conclusion: The gram negative bacteria of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were the most common uropathogenic bacteria causing UTI. According to the statistical calculations, there was significant association between UTI caused by Escherichia coli and female gender (p<0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small heat shock proteins (sHSPs) are chaperones that are crucial in the heat shock response but also have important non-stress roles within the cell. HSP70 in Trichophyton rubrum is already detected and carefully characterised; however, no study was carried out for HSP30 in this pathogenic fungus. In the present study, T. rubrum was obtained from patients with dermatophytosis and cultured in appropriate conditions. High-molecular-weight DNA was extracted using standard extraction methods. Pairs of 21 nt primers were designed from highly conserved regions of the similar genes in other eukaryotic cells. Mentioned primers were utilised in PCR using isolated genomic DNA and extracted RNA templates of T. rubrum. The PCR fragments were then sequenced and 415 nucleotides of HSP30 in this pathogenic fungus were detected; the open reading frame had 156 nucleotides and was coding 51 amino acids. This gene (called TrHSP30) is registered in GenBank at National Center for Biotechnology Information (NIH, USA) database. Detection of TrHSP30 gene may open the way to determination of its possible role in the pathogenesis of dermatophyte infections due to T. rubrum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Respiratory Tract Infections (RTIs) involve complicated microbial diseases which rank among first four deathful diseases around the globe. Classical and traditional microbiologic and serologic assays are not useful for an accurate and definite diagnosis and treatment. The nucleic acid based and molecular technologies are capable to provide us an effective diagnostic tool for a definite treatment. Among a vast range of molecular diagnostic tools microarray is an invaluable technique with rapid, accurate, sensitive, specific and cost effective properties. For this reason, this review has paid an especial attention to application of microarray for diagnosing RTIs. This article has been prepared via searching different types of articles regarding to the topic throughout the Internet. Google Scholar and PubMed were used for the most. Simultaneously, the experiences of the authors were helpful for riting this review literature. The results from different surveys confirm the application of microarray technology as an accurate, rapid, sensitive, specific, and cost effective technology to have an accurate and definite diagnosis and treatment in association with RTIs. We conclude that microarray technology is an appropriate m ultiparametric diagnostic technique which may be used in large scale clinical applications to decrease the rate of mortality among patients with RTIs worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) are important viral infections which may cause different infections in human hosts. There are two types of HSVs including HSV-1 and HSV-2. In most cases HSV infections are asymptomatic, which is life threatening for pregnant women and their newborns. For this reason we have an eye on HSV, epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of HSV infections in pregnant women. This review has been made by searching several reviews and original articles in different search engines and databases within Internet. The results show that HSV infections are one of the most encountered sexual transmitted diseases. The rate of prevalence and incidence of HSV infections is high in developing countries. Multisexual partnership and unsecured sexual intercourse increase the risk of infections. In conclusion, healthy sexual relationship reduces the possibility of the HSV infections among pregnant women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pharmacotherapy is a routine methodology for treating infectious diseases. But in recent decade, the escalation of antibacterial resistance in pathogenic bacteria has led to significant ineffective and indefinite treatment. The global wave of problems followed by multidrug resistant bacteria includes a considerable increase in morbidity, mortality and healthcare costs among patients with nosocomial infections. Some of pathogenic antibacterial resistant strains are detected as false antibacterial susceptible strains via routine clinical diagnostics. According to myriad diversity among multidrug resistant bacteria, the use of advanced and molecular diagnostic tools is a must for obtaining an accurate and rapid result. In this article we are trying to discuss about the importance of multidrug resistant bacteria from different aspects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today reliability, rapidity and accuracy in clinical diagnostics are the first choices. Combination of molecular techniques and Bioinformatics have upgraded diagnostic methods and treating managements. Among advanced clinical technologies, microarrays are effective diagnostics in medicine. Medical microbiology is consisted of medical bacteriology, medical mycology, and medical virology; clinical diagnostics of infectious and non-infectious diseases, gene expression profiling, genetic disorders, detection of pathogenic microbial agents and treatment are different pieces of medicine puzzles. The applications of microarrays in medicine are in progress. The most important problem for public use of microarrays is their expensive costs. Covering the costs of microarray technologies will change them into a gold standard method for diagnosing and treatment in public medical centers, laboratories and hospitals around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute otitis media is the most common multifactorial pediatric infectious disease which annually may lead to an extended consumption of antibiotic worldwide. Acute otitis media is known as a bacterial-viral co-infection pediatric disease which is detectable through a trimeric clinical criterion of acute symptoms, middle ear inflammation and middle ear effusion. There is no gold standard diagnostic approach for acute otitis media yet. Many efforts have been made for producing effective influenza and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines to prevent the increase of acute otitis media among infants, young children and children. Accurate diagnostic methods, vaccination, breastfeeding, standard lifestyle, proper socioeconomic condition, and prompt antibiotic therapy are all the basic principles for a successful handling of acute otitis media management. Until yet, antibiotic therapy via amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavu-lanate is the most acceptable method for managing and treating pediatric patients with AOM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Candida albicans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen which causes urinary tract candidiasis in humans. In this research, we tried to find out the frequency of the Urinary Tract Infections associated with Candida albicans in patients who referred to Central Laboratory of Dr. Shariati Hospital, during 2 years (April 2006- April 2008). Materials and Methods: According to the archived recorded data, the questionnaires were filled out. At the end of this retrospective research, the statistical tests of Chi Square were operated through SPSS software version 15. Outcomes: The results showed that, the Urinary Tract Infections associated with Candida albicans included 6.8% of patients. The remaining 93.2% of Urinary Tract Infections had related to bacterial pathogens. Conclusions: The statistical analyses confirmed the significant association between Urinary Tract Infections caused by Candida albicans and female gender (P<0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial diseases are a great threat to global health and cause considerable mortality and extensive economic losses each year. The medications for treating this group of diseases (antibiotics, antiviral, antifungal drugs, etc.) directly attack the pathogenic agents by recognizing the target molecules. However, it is necessary to note that excessive use of any of these drugs can lead to an increase in microbial resistance and infectious diseases. New therapeutic methods have been studied recently using emerging drugs such as mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which act based on two completely different strategies against pathogens including Host-Directed Therapy (HDT) and Pathogen-Directed Therapy (PDT), respectively. In the PDT approach, AMPs interact directly with pathogens to interrupt their intrusion, survival, and proliferation. These drugs interact directly with the cell membrane or intracellular components of pathogens and cause the death of pathogens or inhibit their replication. The mechanism of action of MSC-Exos in HDT is based on immunomodulation and regulation, promotion of tissue regeneration, and reduced host toxicity. This review studies the potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes/ATPs therapeutic properties against microbial infectious diseases especially pulmonary infections and sepsis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study on the side effects of the nanoparticles (NPs) can provide useful information regarding their biological and medical applications. Herein, the colloidal stability of the silicon dioxide NPs (SiO 2 NPs) in the absence and presence of tau was investigated by TEM and DLS techniques. Afterwards, the thermodynamic parameters of interaction between SiO 2 NPs and tau were determined by fluorescence spectroscopy and docking studies. Finally, the cytotoxic effects of SiO 2 NPs on the viability of PC12 cells were investigated by MTT, AO/EB staining and flow cytometry assays. TEM, DLS, and zeta potential investigations revealed that tau can reduce the colloidal stability of SiO 2 NPs. Fluorescence spectroscopy study indicated that SiO 2 NPs bound to the tau with high affinity through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. Docking study also determined that Ser, Thr and Tyr residues provide a polar microenvironment for SiO 2 NPs/tau interaction. Cellular studies demonstrated that SiO 2 NPs can induce cell mortality through both apoptosis and necrosis mechanisms. Therefore, it may be concluded that the biological systems such as nervous system proteins can affect the colloidal stability of NPs and vice versa NPs in the biological systems can bind to proteins and cell membranes non-specifically and may induce toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) serotype O157:H7 is a food-borne pathogen that younger children are most prone to this microorganism. Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS) caused by EHEC, leads to the destruction of red blood cells and kidney failure. The virulence of E.coli O157:H7 is attributed to fimbriae, that facilitate colonization of bacteria within the colon and verotoxins (VT) or Shiga toxins (Stx) that are released into the blood. Although, in most cases, the infection is self-limitedin young children and aged population, it may cause HUS. Therefore, several investigations are performed in order to offer effective therapies and vaccines, which can prevent and treat the infection in appropriate time. As the pathogenesis of this infection is complicated, a multi-targeted strategy is required. Since cattle are the most important reservoir of EHEC and the root of contamination, reducing E. coli O157:H7 at the farm level should decrease the risk of human illness. Several vaccine approaches have been employed with different proper outcomes in animal models, including recombinant proteins (virulence factors such as; Stx1/2, intimin, EspA, fusion proteins of A and B Stx subunits), avirulent ghost cells of EHEC O157:H7, live attenuated bacteria expressing recombinant proteins, recombinant fimbrial proteins. In addition to protein-based vaccines, DNA vaccines have provided proper prevention in the laboratory animal model. This review paper summarizes the previous studies, current status and future perspective of different immunization strategies for eradicating Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) is a global problem nowadays, causing health difficulty with increasing mortality rates, which doesn't have a verified treatment. SARS-CoV-2 infection has various pathological and epidemiological characteristics, one of them is increased amounts of cytokine production, which in order activate an abnormal unrestricted response called "cytokine storm". This event contributes to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which results in respiratory failure and pneumonia and is the great cause of death associated with Covid-19. Endotoxemia and the release of bacterial lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins) from the lumen into the bloodstream enhance proinflammatory cytokines. SARS-CoV-2 can straightly interplay with endotoxins via its S protein, leading to the extremely elevating release of cytokines and consequently increase the harshness of Covid-19. In this review, we will discuss the possible role of viral-bacterial interaction that occurs through the transfer of bacterial products such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from the intestine into the bloodstream, exacerbating the severity of Covid-19 and cytokine storms. • SARS-CoV-2 infection can increased amounts of cytokine production. • Interaction between viral and bacterial can be transfer bacterial products into the bloodstream. • SARS-CoV-2 infection can be activated an abnormal unrestricted response called "cytokine storm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: The vaccine available to prevent Hepatitis B virus disease is ineffective in 5% of people due to the use of HBsAg as a weak immunogenic factor. In the present study, PreS2/S fused to C18-27 peptide fragment as an effective antigen and is proposed as a promising vaccine candidate compared with the conventional vaccine prescribed in the vaccination program. Methods: After the synthesis of PreS2/S genes and C18-27 peptide fragment in pET28a, the recombinant protein was confirmed by Western blotting. The efficacy of the PreS2/SC18-27 protein was compared with the conventional vaccine injected into five groups of rats. Finally, the cytokine level of IF-r, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, TNF-a, IgG1, and IgG2a were measured using the ELISA method. Results: This study showed no significant difference between the recombinant vaccine group and PBS control group in the IF-r test, but there was a significant difference between groups testing IL-2 and IL-10. In addition, the group receiving the recombinant vaccine with CPG adjuvant at a dilution of 1/10 in the IgG total test on days 14 and 45 after the first injection showed a significant difference in comparison with other groups. Conclusion: This study showed no statistically significant difference between the recombinant protein vaccine group and the conventional vaccine group. The Th1- mediated immune responses obtained from recombinant proteins with and without CPG performed better than conventional vaccines, possibly due to the functional deficiency of the available vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is an intracellular pathogen causing long-term infection in humans that mainly attacks macrophages and can escape from the immune system with the various mechanisms. The only FDA-approved vaccine against M. tuberculosis (MTB) is Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). The protection of this vaccine typically lasts 10–15 years. Due to the increasing number of people becoming ill with MTB each year worldwide, the need to develop a new effective treatment against the disease has been increased. During the past two decades, the research budget for TB vaccine has quadrupled to over half a billion dollars. Most of these research projects were based on amplifying and stimulating the response of T-cells and developing the subunit vaccines. Additionally, these studies have demonstrated that secretory and immunogenic proteins of MTB play a key role in the pathogenesis of the bacteria. Therefore, these proteins were used to develop the new subunit vaccines. In this review, based on the use of these proteins in the successful new subunit vaccines, the PPE44, HSPX, CFP-10 and ESAT-6 antigens were selected and the role of these antigens in designing and developing new subunit vaccines against TB and for the prevention of TB were investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: Despite the vaccination with the BCG vaccine, tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the major health problems in the world. The aim of this study was to evaluate our newly designed vaccine using IL-22 as an adjuvant in comparison with the common BCG vaccine. Methods: The gene constructs were cloned into the expression vector of pET28a and then into the recombinant vector of PET28a -- HSPX, and PPE44 was transformed into Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Finally, the immunogenicity of recombinant proteins with and without BCG and IL-22 in BALB/c mice was investigated. Results: The key cytokines INF-γ and TNF-α were elevated more greatly in BCG immunized group than in PHF immunized group. Immunization with PHF showed a significant increase in IL-4 levels versus the BCG group. Adding IL-22 to the vaccine formulations indicated a tiny increase in IL-4 levels compared to their related vaccine groups. Specific total IgG1 in the experimental groups showed an increase in comparison with control groups, but in the vaccinated groups, no significant differences were observed, and the presence of IL-22 in the vaccine formulations indicated a slight decrease compared with the related mere vaccine groups. Results of specific total IgG2a in the experimental groups revealed that only in the PHF group formulated with IL-22 a significant increase occurs compared with all other experimental groups. Conclusion: It seems that BCG, as the only licensed vaccine for TB infection, could be more potent than a recombinant vaccine in the induction of cellular and humoral immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decade, despite of progression in molecular diagnostic methods of PCR technologies the number of morbidity and mortality of immunocompromised patients infected by various types of mycoses increases. Today, there is a need of ease, fastness, accuracy, reliability, sensitivity and specificity in clinical diagnostic methods. The right choice for a rapid and accurate detection and identification of fungal pathogenic agents with high sensitivity and specificity is DNA microarray technology on the basis of species-specific regions. For this reason, the authors of this mini-review have tried to represent an overview on detection an identification of clinical pathogenic fungi by DNA Microarray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: A main contest in chemotherapy is to obtain regulator above the biodistribution of cytotoxic drugs. The utmost promising strategy comprises of drugs coupled with a tumor-targeting bearer that results in wide cytotoxic activity and particular delivery. The B-subunit of Shiga toxin (STxB) is nontoxic and possesses low immunogenicity that exactly binds to the globotriaosylceramide (Gb3/CD77). Gb3/CD77 extremely expresses on a number of human tumors such as pancreatic, colon, and breast cancer and acts as a functional receptor for Shiga toxin (STx). Then, this toxin can be applied to target Gb3-positive human tumors. In this study, we evaluated DT390-STXB chimeric protein as a new anti-tumor candidate via genetically fusing the DT390 fragment of DT538 (Native diphtheria toxin) to STxB. Methods: This study intended to investigate the DT390- STxB fusion protein structure in silico. Considering the Escherichia coli codon usage, the genomic construct was designed. The properties and the structure of the protein were determined by an in silico technique. The mRNA structure and the physicochemical characteristics, construction, and the stability of the designed chimeric protein were analyzed using computational and bioinformatics tools and servers. Hence, the GOR4 and I-TASSER online web servers were used to predict the secondary and tertiary structures of the designed protein. Results: The results demonstrated that codon adaptation index (CAI) of dt390-stxB chimeric gene raised from 0.6 in the wild type to 0.9 in the chimeric optimized gene. The mfold data revealed that the dt390-stxB mRNA was completely stable to be translated effectively in the novel host. The normal activity of the fusion protein determined by considering the secondary and tertiary structure of each construct. Energy calculation data indicated that the thermodynamic ensemble for mRNA structure was -427.40 kJ/mol. The stability index (SI) of DT390-STxB was 36.95, which is quite appropriate to preserve the stability of the construct. Ultimately, the DT390-STxB was classified as a steady fusion protein according to the Ramachandran plot. Conclusion: Our results showed that DT390-STXB was a stable chimeric protein and it can be recruited as a candidate of novel anti-tumor agents for the development of breast cancer treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein inhibits colon cancer cell's proliferation. • TGFαL3-SEB has the potential effects to target EGFR expressing cancer cell. • TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein induces apoptosis on colon cancer cells. Abstract Background TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein is a synthetic protein, which is produced by combining the third loop (L3) of transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) with staphylococcal enterotoxin type B. To the best of our knowledge, anti-cancer activity of this chimeric protein against colon cancer that overexpresses epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has not yet been studied. Thus, in the present study, the anti-tumor effects of TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein on HT-29 colon cancer cells were evaluated. Materials and methods The TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein was previously designed and cloned in Escherichia coli (E. coli) [ 1 , 2 ]. The level of expression and the purity of this novel protein were examined for further analysis. For this purpose, the cells were treated with different concentrations (25, 50 and 75 μg/ml) of TGFαL3-SEB and then the proliferation was detected using the MTT assay. The apoptosis-inducing potential of TGFαL3-SEB in HT-29 and HEK-293 cells was evaluated by flow cytometry using Annexin V/PI double staining method; in addition, bax/bcl2 mRNA ratio, caspase-3 and caspase-9 activity were also assessed. Results In the present study, TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein was produced in E. coli. After effective purification, its growth inhibitory effect was evaluated. Our results indicated that the incubation of HT-29 colon cancer cell with 25, 50 and 75 μg/ml of TGFαL3-SEB for 24 h leads to significant reduction of proliferation in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Further analysis indicated that exposure of EGFR expressing HT-29 cells to TGFαL3-SEB leads to significant increase of the caspase-3 and caspase-9 activity in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Bax/bcl-2 ratio also confirmed that TGFαL3-SEB has the pro-apoptotic effect. Flow cytometry analysis of TGFαL3-SEB treated cells showed that in addition to apoptotic cells, necrotic cells were also increased significantly at the concentration of 25, 50 and 75 μg/ml (P < 0.05). Conclusion In conclusion, our results demonstrated that TGFαL3-SEB chimeric protein induced cell death through both mechanisms of apoptosis and necrosis in HT-29 colon cancer cells. This paper has highlighted that TGFαL3-SEB has the potential to target EGFR expressing cancer cell. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) has central role in cancer therapy because it causes tumour progression in many cases. The EGFR has seven ligands. Each factor that can block this binding, inhibits the intracellular signal transduction and prevents progression of the tumours. Immune system response is the most important factor for suppressing the initial stage of tumour growth and destroying some initial malignant cells, daily. On the other hand, tumours have different mechanisms to hide their antigens and escape from immune system responses. In contrary, tumours use some mechanisms to escape from immune system such as: 1) use of TGF-β to initiate angiogenesis and immune suppression; 2) Induces Treg cell activation to modulate other immune cells; 3) secretion of the prostaglandin E2 to convert T cell into Treg. So, if a superantigen fused to one of the EGFR-ligands, causes the induction of immune system responses against the tumour cells. One of the new methods is based on the use of the fused super antigen with a ligand of the EGFR to inhibit ligand attaching to the EGFR and inducing immune system responses. To achieve this goal, we can block binding of EGFR to their ligands in the extracellular domain by fusing ligands with bacterial superantigens, toxins or cytokines of the viruses and plants that can induce immune system responses and kill malignant cells. So, the fused ligand can both block signal transduction and induce immune system response against malignant cells. In addition, with combining traditional drugs, high efficacy of the tumour treatment can be achieved. The aim of this review is to assess the mentioned strategy for targeting tumours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of symbiotic and pathogenic microorganisms known as microbiota colonize the host body. The microbiome plays an important role in human health and colonizes hundreds of different species of multicellular organisms so that they are introduced as the metaorganisms. Changes in the microbial population of the gut microbiome may cause resistance to pathogenic bacteria-induced infection. Understanding the principles of Host-Microbiota Interactions (HMIs) is important because it clarifies our insight towards the mechanisms of infections established in the host. Interactions between the host and the microbiota help answer the question of how a microorganism can contribute to the health or disease of the host. Microbiota can increase host resistance to colonization of pathogenic species. Studying the HMIs network can in several ways delineate the pathogenic mechanisms of pathogens and thereby help to increase useful and novel therapeutic pathways. For example, the potentially unique microbial effects that target the distinct host or interfere with the endogenous host interactions can be identified. In addition, the way mutations in essential proteins in the host and/or in the microbes can influence the interactions between them may be determined. Furthermore, HMIs help in identifying host cell regulatory modules. • The human microbiota play a critical role as a double blade sword in health/disease establishment or formation. • Gut Microbiota Colonize in the best microbial ratio to interact with f human immune system to form the best physiological hemostasis. • Human Microbiome could consider as a host metabolite-producing regulator. • Bacteria are able to sense chemicals and nutrients that are present in their surrounding and employ antimicrobial peptide against pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immunotoxins are protein-based drugs consist of a target-specific binding domain and a cytotoxic domain to eliminate target cells. Such compounds are potentially therapeutic to combat diseases such as cancer. Generally, the B-subunit of Shiga toxin (STXB) receptor, globotriaosylceramide (Gb3), is expressed in high amounts on a number of human tumors cancer cells. In this study, we evaluated a new antitumor candidate called DT389-STXB chimeric protein, which genetically fused the DT to B-subunit of Shiga-like toxin (STXB). First a chimeric protein, encoding DT389-STXB was synthesized. The optimized chimeric protein expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3) and confirmed by anti-His Western blot analysis. T47D, SKBR3, 4T1 and MCF7 cell lines were treated separately with purified DT389-STXB recombinant protein and functional activity of DT389-STXB was analyzed by the cell enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA), MTT, ICC, Western blot and apoptosis tests. The results indicated that the recombinant DT389-STXB fusion protein with a molecular weight of 53 kDa was successfully expressed in E.coli BL21 (DE3) and the anti-His western-blot was used to confirm the presence of the protein. The DT389-STXB fusion protein attached to T47D, SKBR3 and 4T1 cell lines with the proper affinity and induced dose-dependent cytotoxicity against GB3-expressing cancer cells in vitro. Our results showed that DT389-STXB fusion protein may be a promising candidate for antitumor therapy agent against breast cancer; however, further studies are required to explore its efficacy in vivo for therapeutic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This review provides the application of exosomes as potential candidate in drug delivery, imaging and gene therapy. • We present an overview on the structure of exosomes, isolation, loading drug or molecules. • In this paper, we discuss many of the current challenges, future development and their interaction into clinical practice. Exosomes are biological nanoparticles (30−150 nm) secreted in the extracellular area from all of cells, that mediate intercellular message. Exosomes act as the carriers for numerous proteins, DNAs, RNAs and cell-signaling molecules. Therefore, exosomes secreted by the tumor cells are useful for diagnostic purposes because of their persistent presence in the blood and their provision of genetic cargo similar to those in tumor. Due to the risks of aggressive activity and ambiguity of biological activity in other tissues, the use of exosomes in drug delivery and imaging has been limited. However, their high loading, stability and longer circulation time, excellent targeting, high cell penetration performance, and optimal biodegradability have made them potential agents in targeted cancer treatment. Therefore, in addition to examining methods for isolating and loading exosomes, this paper discusses the applications of exosomes in biological measurement, imaging, and therapeutic activities. Also, this review describes the challenges of using exosomes compared to conventional methods and shows that it is very useful to use them due to less aggressive activities. Finally, this review attempts to provide an appropriate incentive by showing the performance of exosomes in cancer therapy through targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, imaging and diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The scFv(Herceptin)-PE-STXA and scFv(Herceptin)-PE are a synthetic fusion protein. • Immunotoxins incubation dose-dependently reduces the SKBR-3 cells proliferation. • The cell ELISA was used to determine the binding ability of immunotoxins to the cell receptor. • Imunotoxins can attach to HER2-positive breast cancer cells Target-specific transport of therapeutic agents holds promise to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment by decreasing injury to normal tissues and post treatment problems. HER2 is a tumor cell surface marker that is expressed in 25–30 % of breast cancer patients. The significant role of HER2 in cancer development and its biological feature makes it a highly appealing goal for the therapeutic treatment of cancer targeted therapy using HER2 monoclonal antibody. This approach is currently used as a special treatment against breast cancer in some research. In the present study, HER2 monoclonal antibody (mAb), (Herceptin) fused to PE38 by recombinant DNA technology and a new recombinant IT was developed. The scFv(Herceptin)-PE-STXA and scFv(Herceptin)-PE fusions cloned in pET28a and recombinant protein expression was carried out and then the proteins were purified. MCF-7 and SKBR-3 cells were used as HER2-negative and HER2-positive breast cancer cells, respectively. The cytotoxicity of its evaluated using MTT assay. The cell ELISA was used to determine the binding ability of immunotoxins (ITs) to the cell receptor and internalization and apoptosis were also assessed. The results revealed that cell cytotoxicity occurred in SKBR-3 cells in a dose-dependent manner but not in MCF-7 cells. It is possible that this ITs can attach to HER2-positive breast cancer cells and then, internalize and eradicate cancer cells by apoptosis. Here, we concluded that the recombinant ITs have therapeutic potential against HER2-positive breast cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]