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Obesity and metabolic comorbidities are associated with gut permeability. While high-fructose and Western-style diet (WSD) disrupt intestinal barrier function, oral administration of human α-defensin 5 (HD5) and β-defensin 2 (hBD2) is believed to improve intestinal integrity and metabolic disorders. Eighty-four male C57BL/6J mice were fed a WSD or a control diet (CD) ± fructose (F) for 18 weeks. In week 13, mice were randomly divided into three intervention groups, receiving defensin fragment HD5 1-9 , full-length hBD2, or bovine serum albumin (BSA)-control for six weeks. Subsequently, parameters of hepatic steatosis, glucose metabolism, and gut barrier function were assessed. WSDF increased body weight and hepatic steatosis ( p < 0.01) compared to CD-fed mice, whereas peptide intervention decreased liver fat ( p < 0.05) and number of hepatic lipid droplets ( p < 0.01) compared to BSA-control. In addition, both peptides attenuated glucose intolerance by reducing blood glucose curves in WSDF-fed mice. Evaluation of gut barrier function revealed that HD5 1-9 and hBD2 improve intestinal integrity by upregulating tight junction and mucin expression. Moreover, peptide treatment restored ileal host defense peptides (HDP) expression, likely by modulating the Wnt, Myd88, p38, and Jak/STAT pathways. These findings strongly suggest that α- and β-defensin treatment improve hepatic steatosis, glucose metabolism, and gut barrier function.

Background : The long-term success of nonsurgical weight reduction programs is variable; thus, predictors of outcome are of major interest. We hypothesized that the intestinal microbiota known to be linked with diet and obesity contain such predictive elements. Methods : Metagenome analysis by shotgun sequencing of stool DNA was performed in a cohort of 15 adults with obesity (mean body mass index 43.1 kg/m 2 ) who underwent a one-year multidisciplinary weight loss program and another year of follow-up. Eight individuals were persistently successful (mean relative weight loss 18.2%), and seven individuals were not successful (0.2%). The relationship between relative abundancies of bacterial genera/species and changes in relative weight loss or body mass index was studied using three different statistical modeling methods. Results : When combining the predictor variables selected by the applied statistical modeling, we identified seven bacterial genera and eight bacterial species as candidates for predicting success of weight loss. By classification of relative weight-loss predictions for each patient using 2-5 term models, 13 or 14 out of 15 individuals were predicted correctly. Conclusions : Our data strongly suggest that gut microbiota patterns allow individual prediction of long-term weight loss success. Prediction accuracy seems to be high but needs confirmation by larger prospective trials.

Defects in the mucosal barrier have been associated with metabolic diseases such as obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Mice fed a Western-style diet (WSD) develop obesity and are characterized by a diet-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction, bacterial endotoxin translocation and subsequent liver steatosis. To examine whether inulin or sodium butyrate could improve gut barrier dysfunction, C57BL/6 mice were fed a control diet or a WSD ± fructose supplemented with either 10% inulin or 5% sodium butyrate for 12 weeks respectively. Inulin and sodium butyrate attenuated hepatosteatitis in the WSD-induced obesity mouse model by reducing weight gain, liver weight, plasma and hepatic triglyceride level. Furthermore, supplementation with inulin or sodium butyrate induced expression of Paneth cell α-defensins and matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP7), which was impaired by the WSD and particularly the fructose-added WSD. Effects on antimicrobial peptide function in the ileum were accompanied by induction of β-defensin-1 and tight junction genes in the colon resulting in improved intestinal permeability and endotoxemia. Organoid culture of small intestinal crypts revealed that the short chain fatty acids (SCFA) butyrate, propionate and acetate, fermentation products of inulin, induce Paneth cell α-defensin expression in vitro , and that histone deacetylation and STAT3 might play a role in butyrate-mediated induction of α-defensins. In summary, inulin and sodium butyrate attenuate diet-induced barrier dysfunction and induce expression of Paneth cell antimicrobials. The administration of prebiotic fiber or sodium butyrate could be an interesting therapeutic approach to improve diet-induced obesity., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Beisner, Filipe Rosa, Kaden-Volynets, Stolzer, Günther and Bischoff.)

High consumption of fructose and high-fructose corn syrup is related to the development of obesity-associated metabolic diseases, which have become the most relevant diet-induced diseases. However, the influences of a high-fructose diet on gut microbiota are still largely unknown. We therefore examined the effect of short-term high-fructose consumption on the human intestinal microbiota. Twelve healthy adult women were enrolled in a pilot intervention study. All study participants consecutively followed four different diets, first a low fructose diet (< 10 g/day fructose), then a fruit-rich diet (100 g/day fructose) followed by a low fructose diet (10 g/day fructose) and at last a high-fructose syrup (HFS) supplemented diet (100 g/day fructose). Fecal microbiota was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing. A high-fructose fruit diet significantly shifted the human gut microbiota by increasing the abundance of the phylum Firmicutes , in which beneficial butyrate producing bacteria such as Faecalibacterium , Anareostipes and Erysipelatoclostridium were elevated, and decreasing the abundance of the phylum Bacteroidetes including the genus Parabacteroides . An HFS diet induced substantial differences in microbiota composition compared to the fruit-rich diet leading to a lower Firmicutes and a higher Bacteroidetes abundance as well as reduced abundance of the genus Ruminococcus . Compared to a low-fructose diet we observed a decrease of Faecalibacterium and Erysipelatoclostridium after the HFS diet. Abundance of Bacteroidetes positively correlated with plasma cholesterol and LDL level, whereas abundance of Firmicutes was negatively correlated. Different formulations of high-fructose diets induce distinct alterations in gut microbiota composition. High-fructose intake by HFS causes a reduction of beneficial butyrate producing bacteria and a gut microbiota profile that may affect unfavorably host lipid metabolism whereas high consumption of fructose from fruit seems to modulate the composition of the gut microbiota in a beneficial way supporting digestive health and counteracting harmful effects of excessive fructose.

Genetically modified mice have been successfully used as models for inflammatory bowel diseases; however, dietary effects were poorly examined. Here, we studied the impact of particular nutrients and supplements on gut functions related to the knockout of the epithelial caspase-8 gene. Caspase-8 knockout (Casp8 ∆IEC ) and control (Casp8 fl ) mice were fed for 4 wk a control diet (CD) enriched with 10% inulin (CD-Inu) or 5% sodium butyrate (CD-But) while having free access to plain water or water supplemented with 30% fructose (+F). Body weight changes, intestinal inflammation, and selected markers for barrier function and of liver steatosis were assessed. Casp8 ∆IEC mice developed ileocolitis accompanied by changes in intestinal barrier morphology and reduced expression of barrier-related genes such as mucin-2 ( Muc2) and defensins in the ileum and Muc2 in the colon. Casp8 ∆IEC mice fed a CD also showed impaired body weight gain compared with Casp8 fl mice, which was even more pronounced in mice receiving water supplemented with fructose. Furthermore, we observed a marked liver steatosis and inflammation in some but not all Casp8 ∆IEC mice under a CD, which was on average similar to that observed in control mice under a fructose-rich diet. Hepatic lipid accumulation, as well as markers of ileal barrier function, but not intestinal pathohistology or body weight loss, were attenuated by diets enriched with inulin or butyrate, especially in the absence of fructose supplementation. Our data show that ileocolitis, barrier dysfunction, and malassimilation in Caspase-8 knockout mice can be partially attenuated by oral inulin or butyrate supplementation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Genetic mouse models for ileocolitis are important to understand inflammatory bowel disease in humans. We examined dietetic factors that might aggravate or attenuate ileocolitis and related pathologies in such a model. Deletion of the caspase-8 gene results not only in ileocolitis but also in gut barrier dysfunction, liver steatosis, and malassimilation, which can be partially attenuated by oral inulin or sodium butyrate. Our data indicate that diet modifications can contribute to disease variability and therapy.

Wnt signaling regulates small intestinal stem cell maintenance and Paneth cell differentiation. In patients with ileal Crohn's disease (CD), a decrease of Paneth cell α-defensins has been observed that is partially caused by impaired TCF-4 and LRP6 function. Here we show reduced expression of the Wnt signaling effector TCF-1 (also known as TCF-7) in patients with ileal CD. Reporter gene assays and in vitro promoter binding analysis revealed that TCF-1 activates α-defensin HD-5 and HD-6 transcription in cooperation with β-catenin and that activation is mediated by three distinct TCF binding sites. EMSA analysis showed binding of TCF-1 to the respective motifs. In ileal CD patients, TCF-1 mRNA expression levels were significantly reduced. Moreover, we found specifically reduced expression of active TCF-1 mRNA isoforms. Tcf-1 knockout mice exhibited reduced cryptdin expression in the jejunum, which was not consistently seen at other small intestinal locations. Our data provide evidence that TCF-1-mediated Wnt signaling is disturbed in small intestinal CD, which might contribute to the observed barrier dysfunction in the disease., (Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.)

Background: Although antimicrobial peptides protect mucus and mucosa from bacteria, Helicobacter pylori is able to colonize the gastric mucus. To clarify in which extend Helicobacter escapes the antimicrobial defense, we systematically assessed susceptibility and expression levels of different antimicrobial host factors in gastric mucosa with and without H. pylori infection., Materials and Methods: We investigated the expression levels of HBD1 (gene name DEFB1), HBD2 (DEFB4A), HBD3 (DEFB103A), HBD4 (DEFB104A), LL37 (CAMP) and elafin (PI3) by real time PCR in gastric biopsy samples in a total of 20 controls versus 12 patients colonized with H. pylori. Immunostaining was performed for HBD2 and HBD3. We assessed antimicrobial susceptibility by flow cytometry, growth on blood agar, radial diffusion assay and electron microscopy., Results: H. pylori infection was associated with increased gastric levels of the inducible defensin HBD2 and of the antiprotease elafin, whereas the expression levels of the constitutive defensin HBD1, inducible HBD3 and LL37 remained unchanged. HBD4 was not expressed in significant levels in gastric mucosa. H. pylori strains were resistant to the defensins HBD1 as well as to elafin, and strain specific minimally susceptible to HBD2, whereas HBD3 and LL37 killed all H. pylori strains effectively. We demonstrated the binding of HBD2 and LL37 on the surface of H. pylori cells. Comparing the antibacterial activity of extracts from H. pylori negative and positive biopsies, we found only a minimal killing against H. pylori that was not increased by the induction of HBD2 in H. pylori positive samples., Conclusion: These data support the hypothesis that gastric H. pylori evades the host defense shield to allow colonization.

Unlabelled: Liver cirrhosis is associated with bacterial translocation (BT) and endotoxemia. Most translocating bacteria belong to the common intestinal microbiota, suggesting a breakdown of intestinal barrier function. We hypothesized that diminished mucosal antimicrobial host defense could predispose to BT. Two rodent models of portal hypertension with increased BT were used, CCl(4)-induced ascitic cirrhosis and 2-day portal vein-ligated (PVL) animals. BT was assessed by standard microbiological techniques on mesenteric lymph nodes. Total RNA was isolated systematically throughout the intestinal tract, and expression of Paneth cell α-cryptdins and β-defensins was determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). To determine functional consequences, mucosal antimicrobial activity was assessed with a fluorescence-activated cell sorting assay. BT was detectable in 40% of rats with cirrhosis. Compared with the group without BT, these animals exhibited diminished intestinal Paneth cell α-cryptdin 5 and 7 expression. In contrast, PVL was associated with BT in all animals but did not affect antimicrobial peptides. The decrease in Paneth cell antimicrobials was most pronounced in the ileum and the coecum. Other antimicrobials showed no changes or even an induction in the case of BT at different sites. Antimicrobial activity toward different commensal strains was reduced, especially in the distal ileum and the cecum in experimental cirrhosis with BT (excluding PVL)., Conclusion: Compromised Paneth cell antimicrobial host defense seems to predispose to BT in experimental cirrhosis. Understanding this liver-gut axis including the underlying mechanisms could help us to find new treatment avenues., (Copyright © 2011 American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.)

Ileal Crohn's Disease (CD), a chronic small intestinal inflammatory disorder, is characterized by reduced levels of the antimicrobial peptides DEFA5 (HD-5) and DEFA6 (HD-6). Both of these α-defensins are exclusively produced in Paneth cells (PCs) at small intestinal crypt bases. Different ileal CD-associated genes including NOD2, ATG16L1, and recently the β-catenin-dependant Wnt transcription factor TCF7L2 have been linked to impaired PC antimicrobial function. The Wnt pathway influences gut mucosal homeostasis and PC maturation, besides directly controlling HD-5/6 gene expression. The herein reported candidate gene study focuses on another crucial Wnt factor, the co-receptor low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6). We analysed exonic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a large cohort (Oxford: n = 1,893) and prospectively tested 2 additional European sample sets (Leuven: n = 688, Vienna: n = 1,628). We revealed an association of a non-synonymous SNP (rs2302685; Ile1062Val) with early onset ileal CD (OR 1.8; p = 0.00034; for homozygous carriers: OR 4.1; p = 0.00004) and additionally with penetrating ileal CD behaviour (OR 1.3; p = 0.00917). In contrast, it was not linked to adult onset ileal CD, colonic CD, or ulcerative colitis. Since the rare variant is known to impair LRP6 activity, we investigated its role in patient mucosa. Overall, LRP6 mRNA was diminished in patients independently from the genotype. Analysing the mRNA levels of PC product in biopsies from genotyped individuals (15 controls, 32 ileal, and 12 exclusively colonic CD), we found particularly low defensin levels in ileal CD patients who were carrying the variant. In addition, we confirmed a direct relationship between LRP6 activity and the transcriptional expression of HD-5 using transient transfection. Taken together, we identified LRP6 as a new candidate gene in ileal CD. Impairments in Wnt signalling and Paneth cell biology seem to represent pathophysiological hallmarks in small intestinal inflammation and should therefore be considered as interesting targets for new therapeutic approaches., Competing Interests: Patent application (No: PCT/EP2009/009176, Publication Number: WO2010/072389): Method for determining the predisposition for Crohn's Disease.

Human epithelia are permanently challenged by bacteria and fungi, including commensal and pathogenic microbiota. In the gut, the fraction of strict anaerobes increases from proximal to distal, reaching 99% of bacterial species in the colon. At colonic mucosa, oxygen partial pressure is below 25% of airborne oxygen content, moreover microbial metabolism causes reduction to a low redox potential of -200 mV to -300 mV in the colon. Defensins, characterized by three intramolecular disulphide-bridges, are key effector molecules of innate immunity that protect the host from infectious microbes and shape the composition of microbiota at mucosal surfaces. Human β-defensin 1 (hBD-1) is one of the most prominent peptides of its class but despite ubiquitous expression by all human epithelia, comparison with other defensins suggested only minor antibiotic killing activity. Whereas much is known about the activity of antimicrobial peptides in aerobic environments, data about reducing environments are limited. Herein we show that after reduction of disulphide-bridges hBD-1 becomes a potent antimicrobial peptide against the opportunistic pathogenic fungus Candida albicans and against anaerobic, Gram-positive commensals of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species. Reduced hBD-1 differs structurally from oxidized hBD-1 and free cysteines in the carboxy terminus seem important for the bactericidal effect. In vitro, the thioredoxin (TRX) system is able to reduce hBD-1 and TRX co-localizes with reduced hBD-1 in human epithelia. Hence our study indicates that reduced hBD-1 shields the healthy epithelium against colonisation by commensal bacteria and opportunistic fungi. Accordingly, an intimate interplay between redox-regulation and innate immune defence seems crucial for an effective barrier protecting human epithelia.

Defects in the intestinal barrier play a central role in disease pathogenesis. Recently we have demonstrated that children with ileal Crohn's disease show a reduced expression of small intestinal HD-5 at the age of onset suggesting that a compromised mucosal barrier function might be a key factor in the early disease pathogenesis. We also identified a disturbance of the Wnt signaling transcription factor TCF-4 as a major mechanism for this deficiency in children which might result in a compromised innate immune function of small intestinal Paneth cells via defensin secretion. Here we provide a summary on our recent findings and discuss the data in more detail especially focusing on the role of Paneth cell differentiation and function in the pathogenesis of pediatric ileal Crohn's disease., (© 2011 Landes Bioscience)

Inflammatory bowel diseases are characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation at different sites. Data from animal models as well as human patients including gene-association studies suggest that different components of the innate barrier function are primarily defective. These recent advances support the evolving hypothesis that intestinal bacteria induce inflammation predominantly as a result of a weakened innate mucosal barrier in genetically predisposed individuals. This article discusses our current understanding of the primary events of disease. Together, these findings should result in new therapeutic avenues aimed at restoring antimicrobial barrier function to prevent a bacterial-triggered inflammatory response.

A promising approach for treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is based on the inhibition of telomerase in cancer cells. The antisense oligonucleotide 2'-O-methyl-RNA binding to the RNA component of telomerase acts as a selective telomerase inhibitor. We developed chitosan-coated polylactide-coglycolide (PLGA) nanoparticles to mediate efficient delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA into human lung cancer cells. Cellular uptake of the inhibitor mediated by chitosan-coated PLGA nanoparticles was greatly enhanced compared to the uptake of antisense oligonucleotide alone as shown by flow cytometry analysis. Confocal laser scanning microscopy clearly demonstrated internalization of 2'-O-methyl-RNA. 2'-O-methyl-RNA-nanoparticle complexes exhibited nearly no acute cytotoxicity in human lung cancer cells and did not influence the viability of primary tumor lung fibroblasts. Human NSCLC A549 cells treated with 2'-O-methyl-RNA-nanoparticle complexes showed 87% viability compared to untreated control cells. 2'-O-methyl-RNA delivered by nanoparticle complexes inhibited telomerase activity in a sequence-specific manner. During long-term treatment (15 weeks) telomerase activity was continuously reduced by approximately 80%. Furthermore, nanoparticle mediated delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA resulted in significant telomere shortening from 5.9kb to 4kb (p=0.008) in A549 cells. In summary, our data demonstrate that nanoparticle mediated delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA induces effective telomerase inhibition and telomere shortening in human lung cancer cells and therefore represents a novel and promising strategy for the treatment of lung cancer., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Crohn's disease (CD), a major form of human inflammatory bowel disease, is characterized by primary immunodeficiencies. The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) is essential for intestinal homeostasis in response to both dietary- and microbiota-derived signals. Its role in host defense remains unknown, however. We show that PPARgamma functions as an antimicrobial factor by maintaining constitutive epithelial expression of a subset of beta-defensin in the colon, which includes mDefB10 in mice and DEFB1 in humans. Colonic mucosa of Ppargamma mutant animals shows defective killing of several major components of the intestinal microbiota, including Candida albicans, Bacteroides fragilis, Enterococcus faecalis, and Escherichia coli. Neutralization of the colicidal activity using an anti-mDefB10 blocking antibody was effective in a PPARgamma-dependent manner. A functional promoter variant that is required for DEFB1 expression confers strong protection against Crohn's colitis and ileocolitis (odds ratio, 0.559; P = 0.018). Consistently, colonic involvement in CD is specifically linked to reduced expression of DEFB1 independent of inflammation. These findings support the development of PPARgamma-targeting therapeutic and/or nutritional approaches to prevent colonic inflammation by restoring antimicrobial immunity in CD.

Objectives: Adult ileal Crohn's disease (CD) is characterized by a specific decrease in ileal Paneth cell alpha-defensins. In addition to NOD2, we previously identified a disturbance of the Wnt-signaling transcription factor TCF-4 as a major mechanism for this deficiency. The aim of this study was to evaluate human alpha-defensin-5 (HD-5) and TCF-4 in an independent cohort of pediatric CD patients., Methods: Expression levels of HD-5 and TCF-4 mRNA were quantified by real-time PCR in biopsies from newly diagnosed untreated pediatric CD patients (<18 years, n=36) and age-matched symptomatic non-inflammatory bowel disease controls with a histologically normal gut (n=29). To assess the influence of current inflammation, mucosal interleukin-8 (IL-8) and fecal calprotectin levels were determined., Results: Small intestinal HD-5 and TCF-4 mRNA were significantly reduced in pediatric ileal CD (L1+L3) (P=0.022 and P=0.0005, respectively) and were significantly correlated (r=0.499; P=0.0001). In ileal but not colonic CD, TCF-4 was also reduced in the colon (P=0.005). Importantly, both HD-5 and TCF-4 were independent of inflammation, as measured by IL-8 expression or fecal calprotectin. In contrast to the small intestine, colonic Paneth cell HD-5 mRNA was significantly elevated in colonic CD (L2) (P=0.026) and was correlated with fecal calprotectin levels (r=0.481; P=0.020)., Conclusions: In this study, we describe a specific decrease in HD-5 and TCF-4 mRNA expression levels in children with ileal CD. In the small intestine, this decrease was independent of current inflammation, whereas inflammation seems to induce Paneth cell metaplasia in the colon. Our data extend the hypothesis of an important role of antimicrobial host defense in pediatric CD patients.

Paneth cells (PCs) are specialized epithelial cells predominantly found in the small intestinal crypts of Lieberkuehn. They produce different broad spectrum antimicrobial peptides most abundantly the alpha-defensins HD-5 and -6 (DEFA5 und DEFA6). Both these PC products show a specific reduction in small intestinal Crohn's disease (CD) - a form of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Their decrease is independent of current inflammation and an association with a NOD2 frameshift mutation has been demonstrated. More recently, another independent and even more frequent mechanism has been found which is linked to diminished levels of the Wnt pathway transcription factor TCF7L2 (also known as TCF4). Besides regulating the expression of HD-5 and HD-6 as TCF4 target genes, the Wnt pathway also orchestrates Paneth cell differentiation and maturation and controls stem cell maintenance in the small intestine. Besides NOD2 (which is predominantly expressed in PC) and ATG16L1 (inter alia important in the exocytosis of PC products), TCF4 is the third gene which is associated with small intestinal CD and Paneth cell antimicrobial function. Thus, Paneth cells seem to be key player emphazising a paramount importance of antimicrobial host defense in small intestinal CD pathogenesis., (Copyright 2009. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

The antisense oligonucleotide 2'-O-methyl-RNA is a selective telomerase inhibitor targeting the telomerase RNA component and represents a potential candidate for anticancer therapy. The poor cellular uptake of 2'-O-methyl-RNA is a limiting factor that may contribute to the lack of functional efficacy. To improve delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA and consequently antitumoral efficiency in human lung cancer cells, we have investigated several transfection reagents. The transfection reagents DOTAP, MegaFectin 60, SuperFect, FuGENE 6 and MATra-A were tested for intracellular delivery. A FAM-labeled 2'-O-methyl-RNA was used to assess the intracellular distribution by confocal laser scanning microscopy in A549 human non-small cell lung cancer cells. Telomerase activity was measured using the telomeric repeat amplification protocol. Cell viability after transfection was quantified by the MTT assay. All transfection reagents enhanced 2'-O-methyl-RNA uptake in A549 cells but the cationic lipid reagents DOTAP and MegaFectin 60 were most efficient in the delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA resulting in telomerase inhibition. Among both DOTAP exhibited the lowest cytotoxicity. Our experiments show that DOTAP is the most suitable transfection reagent for the delivery of 2'-O-methyl-RNA in human lung cancer cells according to its relatively low cytotoxicity and its ability to promote efficient uptake leading to the inhibition of telomerase.

Reduced expression of Paneth cell antimicrobial alpha-defensins, human defensin (HD)-5 and -6, characterizes Crohn's disease (CD) of the ileum. TCF-4 (also named TCF7L2), a Wnt signalling pathway transcription factor, orchestrates Paneth cell differentiation, directly regulates the expression of HD-5 and -6, and was previously associated with the decrease of these antimicrobial peptides in a subset of ileal CD. To investigate a potential genetic association of TCF-4 with ileal CD, we sequenced 2.1 kb of the 5' flanking region of TCF-4 in a small group of ileal CD patients and controls (n = 10 each). We identified eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), of which three (rs3814570, rs10885394, rs10885395) were in linkage disequilibrium and found more frequently in patients; one (rs3814570) was thereby located in a predicted regulatory region. We carried out high-throughput analysis of this SNP in three cohorts of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients and controls. Overall 1399 healthy individuals, 785 ulcerative colitis (UC) patients, 225 CD patients with colonic disease only and 784 CD patients with ileal involvement were used to determine frequency distributions. We found an association of rs3814570 with ileal CD but neither with colonic CD or UC, in a combined analysis (allele positivity: OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.52, p = 0.00737), which was the strongest in ileal CD patients with stricturing behaviour (allele frequency: OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.08 to1.62, p = 0.00686) or an additional involvement of the upper GIT (allele frequency: OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.03 to1.84, p = 0.02882). The newly identified genetic association of TCF-4 with ileal CD provides evidence that the decrease in Paneth cell alpha-defensins is a primary factor in disease pathogenesis.

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), a multifunctional growth factor, plays an important role in breast cancer. There is increasing evidence that enhanced expression of TGF-beta promotes breast cancer progression contributing to metastasis and invasiveness of the tumor. We identified a functional polymorphism in the TGFB2 promoter, a 4-bp insertion at position -246 relative to the transcriptional start site (-246ins). Transient transfection experiments showed that the -246ins polymorphism significantly increased TGFB2 promoter activity in breast cancer cells. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays revealed binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to the -246ins allele. Overexpression of Sp1 enhanced promoter activity of the -246ins allele, demonstrating that Sp1 mediates transcriptional activation. Furthermore, the -246ins allele was associated with enhanced TGF-beta(2) expression in breast cancer tissue (P = 0.0005). To evaluate the role of the polymorphism in breast cancer, frequency of the -246ins allele was determined in breast cancer patients (n = 78) and healthy female controls (n = 143). No significant differences were found. However, the presence of the -246ins allele was associated with lymph node metastasis (P = 0.003). The -246ins allele was a significant predictor for lymph node metastasis independent of estrogen and progesterone receptor status in a multivariate logistic regression analysis (P = 0.0118, odds ratio, 5.18; 95% confidence interval, 1.44-18.62). We provide evidence that the TGFB2 -246ins polymorphism leads to enhanced TGF-beta(2) expression levels in vivo and might thereby contribute to tumor progression and development of metastases.