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Information on species distribution range is a prerequisite for setting conservation strategies. Conservation efforts in Nepal have been focused on flagship species, such as Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) and Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). By contrast, distribution data and conservation efforts for other mammalian species are scarce. Here we documented the spatial locations of 27 mammal species based on direct sightings and photographic evidence from 70 m to 4,800 m of elevation across Nepal. We mapped their geographic distributions, delineated their elevation ranges and summarized the potential threats within their distribution ranges. We observed expanded elevation range for c. 30% of the 27 species (8 species), with the most noticeable upward expansion of the Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) from <1,500 m to 2,990 m, and downward expansion of the Fawn-colored Mouse (Mus cervicolor) from >1,150 m to 200 m. These updated, high-quality spatial information on a subset of Nepal’s diverse mammalian fauna, highlight new opportunities to study the effects of climate change on mammals in the Himalayan region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analysed coexistence patterns between two mesocarnivores, Geoffroy's cat ( L eopardus geoffroyi: Felidae) and culpeo fox ( P seudalopex culpaeus: Canidae), in northern Patagonia, Argentina. We examined spatial distribution influenced by land cover, anthropogenic disturbance and invasive hare presence, and analysed temporal activity patterns and dietary composition. If competitive exclusion accounts for carnivore coexistence in this system, we predicted segregation would occur in one or more of these aspects as a mechanism for coexistence. We performed camera trapping in Nahuel Huapi National Park, from February to May 2012 and January to April 2013. Using camera detections, we analysed spatial patterns with co-occupancy modelling and temporal patterns by fitting kernel density estimates and measuring overlap. We performed a dietary meta-analysis using available literature and performed a discriminant function analysis of diet categories between species. We observed high spatial and temporal overlap between Geoffroy's cats and culpeo foxes. We found no evidence of segregation in relation to land cover occupancy, anthropogenic disturbance, invasive hare occurrence or activity patterns. Though both species consumed predominantly small and medium mammals, Geoffroy's cats consumed more birds, reptiles and amphibians, and culpeo foxes consumed more large mammals, carrion and plant material; coexistence between these two carnivores in this Patagonian protected area appears to be facilitated by diet segregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of animals is influenced by numerous factors including spatial distribution and temporal availability of resources. We tested the spatial resource variability hypothesis (increasing landscape heterogeneity results in increasing amount of space use) and the temporal resource variability hypothesis (temporal variation in resources reduces amount of space use) using location data from radiomarked American black bears Ursus americanus in Missouri and Arkansas, USA. We used 95% utilization distributions ( UDs) to define individual seasonal space use and constructed 22 models using covariates that described composition, spatial arrangement and diversity of land cover types (an index of heterogeneity or patchiness); seasonal hard mast production; and seasonal use of land cover to test our hypotheses using linear modeling and small-sample Akaike information criterion ( AICc) model selection approaches. The AICc best performing model supported the spatial resource variability hypothesis and included Shannon diversity index [95% confidence limit ( CL) of coefficient = 1.56-2.42] and sex (male; 95% CL of coefficient = 0.05-0.49) as covariates that explained variation in transformed values of UD size. Predicted and observed values during model evaluation were highly correlated ( r = 0.90). As land cover heterogeneity increased, UD size increased, likely a consequence of bears responding to greater patchiness to maintain sufficient resources. Further, the Shannon diversity index was greater for males than females , suggesting larger bodied males used larger areas to meet their higher energetic costs due to landscape fragmentation. Studies of resource hypotheses in solitary species should consider intraspecific allometric relationships such as sexual size dimorphism as has been addressed using group size in social species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some central and eastern populations of fisher P ekania [ M artes] pennanti are expanding their ranges following historic range contractions, while many western populations have yet to do so. We investigated whether expanding fisher populations are benefiting from a mesopredator release following reductions in their carnivore predator communities. This hypothesis posits that local extinctions of the largest predators 'release' mesopredator populations from direct predation and competition, leading to an increase in their abundance, expansion of their range and potentially to shifts in their morphology and ecological niche. Our comparison of the conservation status and predator communities of fishers across four geographic regions of their range supports the mesopredator release hypothesis, especially in their eastern range. Our meta-analysis of fisher diet also suggests that released fisher populations may benefit by complementing their diverse diets with more large-bodied prey species, whereas those with more specialized diets (e.g. northwestern populations) or diverse diets with small amounts of large-bodied prey (e.g. populations within California) have experienced little range expansion. Further, measurements of museum specimens suggest that individuals within released populations have evolved a larger body size since the time of their most contracted range, which may help them hunt larger prey species that are expected to be more available in the absence of larger carnivores. Collectively, these data support the hypothesis that a reduced predator community is contributing to the geographic variation in modern fishers' range expansion. In addition to harvest restrictions, habitat protection and translocations, future conservation plans should consider the potential effects of the predator community, emphasizing the need to quantify fisher mortality sources and fisher-predator interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract. We evaluated the effectiveness of ReJex-iTTM TP-40, containing 40% methyl anthranilate (MA) for deterring woodpeckers from food and from damaging wood sidings of buildings. During December 1993- February 1994 we conducted three 2-week trials at four sites using six pairs of feeders containing untreated or TP-40- treated suet (5 .0, 2.5, or 1.25% g/g). We then placed 10 (1995) and four (1996) pairs (1 each TP-40-treated and control) of boxes with wood siding containing untreated suet at seven and four sites with known woodpecker activity for 2- 3 weeks to assess damage to the siding. We also applied TP-40 to woodpecker-damaged wood siding of 14 residential buildings during 1994- 1996. Suet-eating birds, primarily downy woodpeckers ( Picoides pubescens Linnaeus), were repelled ( P < 0.01) by treated suet at all concentrations compared with untreated suet. By contrast, damage (primarily by downy woodpeckers) to wood siding on untreated and TP-40-treated boxes was similar ( P 0.32) in both years. Also, 5 of 10 buildings treated with TP-40 received woodpecker damage in areas treated previously. We conclude that TP-40 deters woodpeckers from food but does not reduce woodpecker damage to wood siding. This difference in repellency is likely to have been a consequence ofrapid degradation ofTP-40 from siding (49% in 3 days) and the fact that woodpeckers do not ingest wood, which minimized their exposure to TP-40. We conclude that chemical repellents will generally be ineffective in reducing woodpecker damage to wood, and that other techniques including exclusion, frightening devices, and alternate forms of wood siding (e.g. wood composites) should be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recorded observations of caribou (Rangifer tarandus), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), Dall sheep (Ovis dalli) and moose (Alces alces) along the Denali National Park and Preserve road corridor during 1995-97. We compared these observations to similar data from previous studies to evaluate the effect of an increase in traffic on the number of animals sighted and their behavior. Between 1972 and 1997, annual visitation to Denali National Park increased from about 45000 to 350000, with attendant increases in traffic on the park road. The mean numberof caribou, grizzly bear, and Dall sheep observed did not decline (p> 0.301) from 1973 to 1997. The number of moose observed declined bymode than 50% (R2 = 0.529, p < 0.001). The estimated population of moose also declined over the same period (R2= 0.374, p = 0.002). The distance from the park road at which caribou andgrizzly bears were sighted did not change (p > 0.787), but fewer moose (p < 0.031) were observed within 100 m of the road and fewer sheep(p < 0.011) were observed between 400 and 500 m from the road. Adverse behavioral responses to traffic (e.g., running from vehicles) occurred in less than 1.3% of observations for each species. Increased traffic on the park road apparently has not caused significant changes in abundance, distribution, or behavior of caribou, grizzly bear, Dall sheep, and moose in the park road corridor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little information exists on the importance of landfills to urban gulls and the influence landfills have on the establishment of urbim-nesting gull colonies. Thus, there is critical need for data to determine factors contributing to increasing populations of urban gulls. Ourobjectives were to determine the importance of landfills to the reproductive success, diet, and movements (via radio telemetry) of urban-nesting herring gulls (Larus argentatus) and ring-billed gulls (L. delawarensis) in northern Ohio. Hatch success of herring gulls (198 breeding pairs) and ring-billed gulls (4502 breeding pairs) at urban-nesting colonies was >/= 41% lower than hatch success of traditional Great Lakes nesting colonies and more closely approximated hatch successof other urban-nesting colonies. Based on diet and habitat use, ring-billed gulls appeared more dependent on landfills than did herring gulls. Anthropogenic food, primarily from three landfills, was the major component of the diets of ring-billed gulls, whereas fish, primarily from Lake Erie, was used more extensively by herring gulls. On average, adult (25 km) and hatching-year (24 km) ring-billed gulls were located farther from their nesting colony than were adult (18 km) or hatching-year (12 km) herring gulls. Habitat use by hatching-year gulls of both species was similar to habitat use by adult conspecifics. Landfills contain a dependable source of food for urban-nesting gulls. Thus, size and distribution of urban-nesting gull colonies are likely to continue increasing, provided adequate anthropogenic food and colony sites remain available. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To improve capture efficacy of rock doves (Columba livia) in nuisance situations, we reevaluated the effectiveness of three dosages (60, 120 and 180 mg/kg) of alpha-chloralose (AC). Responses to immobilization using 180 mg/kg AC also were compared in rock doves deprived of food for 16 hr and not food deprived. Mean (+/- SE) time to first effects (33 +/- 2 min) and mean time to capture (94 +/- 5 min) were significantly less for rock doves receiving 180 mg/kg than for rock doves receiving lower dosages (> or = 53 +/- 3 min and > or = 153 +/- 17 min, respectively). Ten, 10, and eight rock doves immobilized with 60, 120, and 180 mg/kg AC recovered within 24 hr, respectively; all rock doves recovered within 29 hr. Although food-deprived rock doves showed effects of AC immobilization earlier than did rock doves with food, time to capture was similar between these two groups. For capturing rock doves, we recommend treating corn with 3 mg AC/kernel and using 180 mg/kg as the effective dose. This modified formulation and dosage should improve capture success of rock doves substantially and improve the ability to resolve nuisance rock dove problems.

The effectiveness of an alpha-chloralose (AC)-corn oil suspension, an AC-margarine mixture, and AC tablets were compared for immobilizing Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Responses to AC immobilization also were compared in male and female Canada geese. There was no difference in mean time to first effects or mean time to capture between male and female geese dosed with 30 mg/kg AC in orally-administered bread baits. Recovery times (< or = 24 hr) also were similar between sexes. Mean (+/-SE) time to first effects for geese immobilized with AC tablets in bread baits (19 +/- 3 min) was significantly less than mean time to first effects for geese immobilized with AC in margarine (28 +/- 6 min) or AC in corn oil (32 +/- 7 min) applied to bread baits (n = 12 geese/treatment). Respective mean times to capture geese immobilized with AC tablets, AC-margarine, and AC-corn oil were not significantly different at 62 +/- 25, 89 +/- 48, and 88 +/- 30 min, respectively. Ten, 11 and, seven geese immobilized with AC tablets, AC-margarine, and AC-corn oil recovered within 24 hr, respectively; all geese recovered within 28 hr. Male and female Canada geese respond similarly to AC immobilization, at least during molt, and AC mixed with margarine or AC in tablet form is at least as effective as the presently used AC-corn oil suspension. AC tablets or AC-margarine also would be more practical for some field situations. Additional development of AC tablets will be required prior to field use for capturing nuisance waterfowl.

The effectiveness of ketamine and xylazine as an immobilizing combination for muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) was evaluated. Eleven muskrats were intramuscularly injected using a high (n = 7) or low (n = 4) dosage of a 20:1 mixture of ketamine (12 or 20 mg) and xylazine (0.6 or 1.0 mg) in Carlton County, Minnesota (USA) from 1 to 4 May 1995. Mean (+/- SD) induction times for muskrats receiving a high dosage (6.5 +/- 2.6 min) or low dosage (7.0 +/- 1.6 min) was similar (P = 0.71). In contrast, muskrats receiving a low dosage recovered sooner (37.0 +/- 15.1 min) than muskrats receiving a high dosage (62.2 +/- 15.6 min) (P = 0.04). There was a positive linear relationship (r2 = 0.75, P = 0.02) between the amount (mg/kg) of ketamine-xylazine injected and recovery time but not between the amount injected and induction time (r2 = 0.49, P = 0.18). Heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature were similar (P = 0.20 to 0.62) between high and low dose groups. No mortality occurred nor were short-term adverse effects observed in recaptured individuals. I conclude that a 20:1 mixture of ketamine-xylazine is a safe and effective immobilization agent for muskrats when conducting non-surgical field procedures. Immobilizing muskrats with 15 mg/kg ketamine and 0.75 mg/kg xylazine should provide about 10 min of handling time before arousal and allow full recovery in < 60 min.

The effectiveness of isoflurane as an inhalation anesthetic for muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) was evaluated. Thirty muskrats were anesthetized in an enclosed chamber using 10 ml of isoflurane in Carlton County, Minnesota (USA), from 27 September to 24 October 1994. Mean (+/- SE) induction time for adults, juveniles, and kits was 20.6 +/- 2.9, 21.5 +/- 2.4, and 16.9 +/- 5.3 min, respectively (P = 0.77). Respective mean arousal times for adults, juveniles, and kits were 5.1 +/- 0.5, 5.7 +/- 0.7, and 5.7 +/- 0.6 min (P = 0.78). Heart rate, respiration rate, and body temperature were similar among age classes (P = 0.08 to 0.58). Mortality (3.3%) was comparable to that of other inhalation anesthetics. No short-term adverse effects were observed in recaptured individuals. Isoflurane is a safe and effective inhalation anesthetic for muskrats, although prolonged induction may limit its use in field studies.

Ketamine hydrochloride (KH) and a 5:1 combination of KH and xylazine hydrochloride (XH) were used successfully to immobilize short-tailed weasels (Mustela erminea) and American martens (Martes americana), respectively. Four adult male martens were intramuscularly injected with 30 to 82 mg/kg KH and 8.0 to 16.4 mg/kg XH. Three adult male short-tailed weasels were intramuscularly injected with 20.8 to 42.1 mg/kg KH. Mean (+/- SE) induction times for martens and short-tailed weasels were 1.8 +/- 0.2 min and 46 +/- 4.1 sec, respectively; recovery times were 100.4 +/- 19.3 min and 97.9 +/- 6.3 min, respectively. Heart rate was relatively constant among martens; however, respiration varied widely (21 to 122 breaths per minute). Marten body temperature decreased between 0 and 20 min post-recumbency. Short-tailed weasel heart rate and respiration decreased in response to sedation until slightly before arousal. Body temperature stabilized by 20 min post-recumbency. Two short-tailed weasels tremored slightly within 10 min of arousal. I conclude that KH and KH/XH are safe immobilizing agents for martens and short-tailed weasels, respectively.

A combination of 100 mg ketamine hydrochloride (KH) and 20 mg xylazine hydrochloride (XH) was used to immobilize fishers (Martes pennanti). Four adult males were intramuscularly injected a total of five times at dosages between 22.4 to 29.0 mg/kg KH and 4.1 to 6.6 mg/kg XH. Mean (+/- SE) induction time and arousal time were 3.3 +/- 0.5 min and 76.8 +/- 12.1 min, respectively. Respiration, heart rate, and body temperature in response to sedation appeared normal. A 5:1 mixture of KH-XH appears to be a safe immobilizing agent for fishers.