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This systematic assessment of occurrence for 85 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in raw (untreated) groundwater used for public supply across the United States (U.S.), which includes 43 compounds not previously monitored by national studies, relates VOC occurrence to explanatory factors and assesses VOC detections in a human-health context. Samples were collected in 2013 through 2019 from 1537 public-supply wells in aquifers representing 78% of the volume pumped for public drinking-water supply. Laboratory detection limits for VOCs generally were less than 0.1 μg/L. Detections were reported for 36% of the sampled principal-aquifer area (38% of sampled wells) and were most common in wells in shallow, unconfined aquifers in urban areas that produce high proportions of modern-age and oxic groundwater. The disinfection by-product trichloromethane (chloroform) was the most commonly detected VOC associated primarily with anthropogenic sources (24% of the sampled area, 25% of sampled wells), followed by the gasoline oxygenate methyl tert-butyl ether (8.4% of area, 11% of wells). Carbon disulfide (12% of area, 14% of wells) was examined separately because of likely substantial contributions from natural sources. Newly monitored VOCs were each detected in <1% of the sampled area. Although detections of 1,4-dioxane in this first national study of its occurrence in raw groundwater were rare, measured concentrations exceeded the most stringent (non-enforceable) human-health benchmark in 0.5% of the sampled area (9 wells). Two wells had exceedances of enforceable benchmarks for tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene, and 50 wells total (representing 2.0% of the sampled area, 3.3% of sampled wells) had combined VOC concentrations exceeding 10% of benchmarks of any type. Compared with previous national findings, this study reports lower rates of VOC detection, but confirms widespread anthropogenic influence on groundwater used for public supply, with relatively few concentrations of individual VOCs or mixtures that approach or exceed human-health benchmarks., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Manganese (Mn) concentrations and the probability of arsenic (As) exceeding the drinking-water standard of 10 μg/L were predicted in the Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer (MRVA) using boosted regression trees (BRT). BRT, a type of ensemble-tree machine-learning model, were created using predictor variables that affect Mn and As distribution in groundwater. These variables included iron (Fe) concentrations and specific conductance predicted from previously developed BRT models, groundwater flux and age estimates from MODFLOW, and hydrologic characteristics. The models also included results from the first airborne geophysical survey conducted in the United States to target an entire aquifer system. Predictions of high Mn and As occurred where Fe was high. Predicted high Mn concentrations were correlated with fraction of young groundwater (less than 65 years) computed from MODFLOW results. High probabilities of As exceedance were predicted where groundwater was relatively old and airborne electromagnetic resistivity was high, typically proximal to streams. Two-variable partial-dependence plots and sensitivity analysis were used to provide insight into the factors controlling Mn and As distribution in groundwater. The maps of predicted Mn concentrations and As exceedance probabilities can be used to identify areas where these constituents may be high, and that could be targeted for further study. This paper shows that incorporation of a selected set of process-informed data, such as MODFLOW results and airborne geophysics, into a machine-learning model improves model interpretability. Incorporation of process-rich information into machine-learning models will likely be useful for addressing a wide range of problems of interest to groundwater hydrologists., (Published 2022. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. Groundwater published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of National Ground Water Association.)

A random forest regression (RFR) model was applied to over 12,000 wells with measured fluoride (F) concentrations in untreated groundwater to predict F concentrations at depths used for domestic and public supply in basin-fill aquifers of the western United States. The model relied on twenty-two regional-scale environmental and surficial predictor variables selected to represent factors known to control F concentrations in groundwater. The testing model fit R 2 and RMSE were 0.52 and 0.78 mg/L. Comparisons of measured to predicted proportions of four F-concentrations categories (<0.7 mg/L, 0.7-2 mg/L, >2 mg/L - 4 mg/L, and > 4 mg/L) indicate that the model performed well at making regional-scale predictions. Differences between measured and predicted proportions indicate underprediction of measured F at values by between 4 and 20 mg/L, representing less than 1% of the regional scale predicted values. These residuals most often map to geographic regions where local-scale processes including evaporative discharge in closed basins or intermittent streams concentrate fluoride in shallow groundwater. Despite this, the RFR model provides spatially continuous F predictions across the basin-fill aquifers where discrete samples are missing. Further, the predictions capture documented areas that exceed the F maximum contaminant level for drinking water of 4 mg/L and areas that are below the oral-health benchmark of 0.7 mg/L. These predictions can be used to estimate fluoride concentrations in unmonitored areas and to aid in identifying geographic areas that may require further investigation at localized scales., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Most Americans receive their drinking water from publicly supplied sources, a large portion of it from groundwater. Mapping these populations consistently and at a high resolution is important for understanding where the resource is used and needs to be protected. The results show that 269 million people are supplied by public supply, 107 million are supplied by groundwater and 162 million are supplied by surface water. The population using public supply drinking water was mapped in two ways: the census enhanced method (CEM) evenly distributes the population across populated census blocks, and the urban land-use enhanced method (ULUEM) distributes the population only to certain urban land use designations. In addition, a two-dimensional polygon dataset was created for the conterminous U.S. that identifies 177 unique Hydrogeologic Mapping Units (HMUs) with similar hydrogeologic characteristics. The HMUs do not overlap, but they can delineate areas where stacked hydrogeologic regions (HRs) contribute drinking water from below the surface. HRs are waterbearing geologic regions identified as either a principal aquifers (PA) or secondary hydrogeologic regions (SHR). Within each HMU, the wells were used to determine the proportion of each HR that is providing groundwater to the HMU. In 63% of the HMUs, a single HR is providing water to the public supply wells located within it, while the rest of the HMUs show that the wells are tapping up to a maximum of four stacked HRs. In total, groundwater from 108 HRs provide drinking water for public supply, six of which provide more than 50% of the groundwater used for public supply drinking water. The aquifer serving the largest number of equivalent people (>17 million) is the glacial aquifer. The HR providing the greatest number of people per km 2 is the Biscayne aquifer in Florida at nearly 453 people per km 2 ., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Lithium concentrations in untreated groundwater from 1464 public-supply wells and 1676 domestic-supply wells distributed across 33 principal aquifers in the United States were evaluated for spatial variations and possible explanatory factors. Concentrations nationwide ranged from <1 to 396 μg/L (median of 8.1) for public supply wells and <1 to 1700 μg/L (median of 6 μg/L) for domestic supply wells. For context, lithium concentrations were compared to a Health Based Screening Level (HBSL, 10 μg/L) and a drinking-water only threshold (60 μg/L). These thresholds were exceeded in 45% and 9% of samples from public-supply wells and in 37% and 6% from domestic-supply wells, respectively. However, exceedances and median concentrations ranged broadly across geographic regions and principal aquifers. Concentrations were highest in arid regions and older groundwater, particularly in unconsolidated clastic aquifers and sandstones, and lowest in carbonate-rock aquifers, consistent with differences in lithium abundance among major lithologies and rock weathering extent. The median concentration for public-supply wells in the unconsolidated clastic High Plains aquifer (central United States) was 24.6 μg/L; 24% of the wells exceeded the drinking-water only threshold and 86% exceeded the HBSL. Other unconsolidated clastic aquifers in the arid West had exceedance rates comparable to the High Plains aquifer, whereas no public supply wells in the Biscayne aquifer (southern Florida) exceeded either threshold, and the highest concentration in that aquifer was 2.6 μg/L. Multiple lines of evidence indicate natural sources for the lithium concentrations; however, anthropogenic sources may be important in the future because of the rapid increase of lithium battery use and subsequent disposal. Geochemical models demonstrate that extensive evaporation, mineral dissolution, cation exchange, and mixing with geothermal waters or brines may account for the observed lithium and associated constituent concentrations, with the latter two processes as major contributing factors., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

A boosted regression tree model was developed to predict pH conditions in three dimensions throughout the glacial aquifer system of the contiguous United States using pH measurements in samples from 18,386 wells and predictor variables that represent aspects of the hydrogeologic setting. Model results indicate that the carbonate content of soils and aquifer materials strongly controls pH and, when coupled with long flowpaths, results in the most alkaline conditions. Conversely, in areas where glacial sediments are thin and carbonate-poor, pH conditions remain acidic. At depths typical of drinking-water supplies, predicted pH >7.5-which is associated with arsenic mobilization-occurs more frequently than predicted pH <6-which is associated with water corrosivity and the mobilization of other trace elements. A novel aspect of this model was the inclusion of numerically based estimates of groundwater flow characteristics (age and flowpath length) as predictor variables. The sensitivity of pH predictions to these variables was consistent with hydrologic understanding of groundwater flow systems and the geochemical evolution of groundwater quality. The model was not developed to provide precise estimates of pH at any given location. Rather, it can be used to more generally identify areas where contaminants may be mobilized into groundwater and where corrosivity issues may be of concern to prioritize areas for future groundwater monitoring., (Published 2020. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. Groundwater published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of National Ground Water Association.)

This is the first assessment of groundwater from public-supply wells across the United States to analyze for >100 pesticide degradates and to provide human-health context for degradates without benchmarks. Samples from 1204 wells in aquifers representing 70% of the volume pumped for drinking supply were analyzed for 109 pesticides (active ingredients) and 116 degradates. Among the 41% of wells where pesticide compounds were detected, nearly two-thirds contained compound mixtures and three-quarters contained degradates. Atrazine, hexazinone, prometon, tebuthiuron, four atrazine degradates, and one metolachlor degradate were each detected in >5% of wells. Detection frequencies were largest for aquifers with more shallow, unconfined wells producing modern-age groundwater. To screen for potential human-health concerns, benchmark quotients (BQs) were calculated by dividing concentrations by the human-health benchmark, when available. For degradates without benchmarks, estimated values (estimated benchmark quotients (BQE)) were first calculated by assuming equimolar toxicity to the most toxic parent; final analysis excluded degradates with likely overestimated toxicity. Six pesticide compounds and 1.6% of wells had concentrations approaching levels of potential concern (individual or summed BQ or BQE values >0.1), and none exceeded these levels (values >1). Therefore, although pesticide compounds occurred frequently, concentrations were low, even accounting for mixtures and degradates without benchmarks.

Data from 38,105 wells were used to characterize fluoride (F) occurrence in untreated United States (U.S.) groundwater. For domestic wells (n = 11,032), water from which is generally not purposely fluoridated or monitored for quality, 10.9% of the samples have F concentrations >0.7 mg/L (U.S. Public Health Service recommended optimal F concentration in drinking water for preventing tooth decay) (87% are <0.7 mg/L); 2.6% have F > 2 mg/L (EPA Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level, SMCL); and 0.6% have F > 4 mg/L (EPA MCL). The data indicate the biggest concern with F in domestic wells at the national scale could be one of under consumption of F with respect to the oral-health benchmark (0.7 mg/L). Elevated F concentrations relative to the SMCL and MCL are regionally important, particularly in the western U.S. Statistical comparisons of potentially important controlling factors in four F-concentration categories (<0.1-0.7 mg/L; >0.7-2 mg/L; >2-4 mg/L; >4 mg/L) at the national scale indicate the highest F-concentration category is associated with groundwater that has significantly greater pH values, TDS and alkalinity concentrations, and well depths, and lower Ca/Na ratios and mean annual precipitation, than the lowest F-concentration category. The relative importance of the controlling factors appears to be regionally variable. Three case studies illustrate the spatial variability in controlling factors using groundwater-age (groundwater residence time), water-isotope (evaporative concentration), and water-temperature (geothermal processes) data. Populations potentially served by domestic wells with F concentrations <0.7, >0.7, >2, and >4 mg/L are estimated to be ~28,200,000, ~3,110,000; ~522,000; and ~172,000 people, respectively, in 40 principal aquifers with at least 25 F analyses per aquifer., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Domestic wells provide drinking water supply for approximately 40 million people in the United States. Knowing the location of these wells, and the populations they serve, is important for identifying heavily used aquifers, locations susceptible to contamination, and populations potentially impacted by poor-quality groundwater. The 1990 census was the last nationally consistent survey of a home's source of water, and has not been surveyed since. This paper presents a method for projecting the population dependent on domestic wells for years after 1990, using information from the 1990 census along with population data from subsequent censuses. The method is based on the "domestic ratio" at the census block-group level, defined here as the number of households dependent on domestic wells divided by the total population. Analysis of 1990 data (>220,000 block-groups) indicates that the domestic ratio is a function of the household density. As household density increases, the domestic ratio decreases, once a household density threshold is met. The 1990 data were used to develop a relationship between household density and the domestic ratio. The fitted model, along with household density data from 2000 and 2010, was used to estimate domestic ratios for each decadal year. In turn, the number of households dependent on domestic wells was estimated at the block-group level for 2000 and 2010. High-resolution census-block population data were used to refine the spatial distribution of domestic-well usage and to convert the data into population numbers. The results are presented in two downloadable raster datasets for each decadal year. It is estimated that the total population using domestic-well water in the contiguous U.S. increased 1.5% from 1990 to 2000 to a total of 37.25 million people and increased slightly from 2000 to 2010 to 37.29 million people., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Water samples from 50 domestic wells located <1 km (proximal) and >1 km (distal) from shale-gas wells in upland areas of the Marcellus Shale region were analyzed for chemical, isotopic, and groundwater-age tracers. Uplands were targeted because natural mixing with brine and hydrocarbons from deep formations is less common in those areas compared to valleys. CH 4 -isotope, predrill CH 4 -concentration, and other data indicate that one proximal sample (5% of proximal samples) contains thermogenic CH 4 (2.6 mg/L) from a relatively shallow source (Catskill/Lock Haven Formations) that appears to have been mobilized by shale-gas production activities. Another proximal sample contains five other volatile hydrocarbons (0.03-0.4 μg/L), including benzene, more hydrocarbons than in any other sample. Modeled groundwater-age distributions, calibrated to  3 H, SF 6 , and 14 C concentrations, indicate that water in that sample recharged prior to shale-gas development, suggesting that land-surface releases associated with shale-gas production were not the source of those hydrocarbons, although subsurface leakage from a nearby gas well directly into the groundwater cannot be ruled out. Age distributions in the samples span ∼20 to >10000 years and have implications for relating occurrences of hydrocarbons in groundwater to land-surface releases associated with recent shale-gas production and for the time required to flush contaminants from the system.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) previously identified and mapped 62 Principal Aquifers (PAs) in the U.S., with 57 located in the conterminous states. Areas outside of PAs, which account for about 40% of the conterminous U.S., were collectively identified as "other rocks." This paper, for the first time, subdivides this large area into internally-consistent features, defined here as Secondary Hydrogeologic Regions (SHRs). SHRs are areas of other rock within which the rocks or deposits are of comparable age, lithology, geologic or physiographic setting, and relationship to the presence or absence of underling PAs or overlying glacial deposits. A total of 69 SHRs were identified. The number and size of SHRs identified in this paper are comparable to the number and size of PAs previously identified by the USGS. From a two-dimensional perspective, SHRs are complementary to PAs, mapped only where the PAs were not identified on the USGS PA map and not mapped where the PAs were identified. SHRs generally consist of low permeability rocks or deposits, but can include locally productive aquifers. The two maps, taken together, provide a comprehensive, national-scale hydrogeologic framework for assessing and understanding groundwater systems., (Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. Groundwater published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf ofNational Ground Water Association.)

In the U.S., about 44 million people rely on self-supplied groundwater for drinking water. Because most self-supplied homeowners do not treat their water to control corrosion, drinking water can be susceptible to lead (Pb) contamination from metal plumbing. To assess the types and locations of susceptible groundwater, a geochemical reaction model that included pure Pb minerals and solid solutions of calcite (Ca x Pb 1- x CO 3 ) and apatite [Ca x Pb 5-x (PO 4 ) 3 (OH; Cl; F)] was developed to estimate the lead solubility potential (LSP) for over 8300 untreated groundwater samples collected from domestic and public-supply sites between 2000 and 2016 in the U.S. The LSP is the calculated amount of Pb metal that could dissolve at 25 °C before a Pb-bearing mineral precipitates. About 33% of untreated groundwater samples had LSP greater than 15 μg/L-the USEPA action level for dissolved plus particulate forms of Pb. Five percent of samples had high LSP (above 300 μg/L) and tended to occur in the eastern and southeastern U.S. Measured Pb concentrations above 15 μg/L were rarely detected (<1%) but always coincided with high LSP values. Future work will provide a better understanding of the relation between water chemistry, Pb-mineral formation, and dissolved Pb concentrations in tap water.

This is the first large-scale, systematic assessment of hormone and pharmaceutical occurrence in groundwater used for drinking across the United States. Samples from 1091 sites in Principal Aquifers representing 60% of the volume pumped for drinking-water supply had final data for 21 hormones and 103 pharmaceuticals. At least one compound was detected at 5.9% of 844 sites representing the resource used for public supply across the entirety of 15 Principal Aquifers, and at 11.3% of 247 sites representing the resource used for domestic supply over subareas of nine Principal Aquifers. Of 34 compounds detected, one plastics component (bisphenol A), three pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, and meprobamate), and the caffeine degradate 1,7-dimethylxanthine were detected in more than 0.5% of samples. Hydrocortisone had a concentration greater than a human-health benchmark at 1 site. Compounds with high solubility and low K oc were most likely to be detected. Detections were most common in shallow wells with a component of recent recharge, particularly in crystalline-rock and mixed land-use settings. Results indicate vulnerability of groundwater used for drinking water in the U.S. to contamination by these compounds is generally limited, and exposure to these compounds at detected concentrations is unlikely to have adverse effects on human health.

Chemical data from 43 334 wells were used to examine the role of land surface-soil-aquifer connections in producing elevated manganese concentrations (>300 μg/L) in United States (U.S.) groundwater. Elevated concentrations of manganese and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in groundwater are associated with shallow, anoxic water tables and soils enriched in organic carbon, suggesting soil-derived DOC supports manganese reduction and mobilization in shallow groundwater. Manganese and DOC concentrations are higher near rivers than farther from rivers, suggesting river-derived DOC also supports manganese mobilization. Anthropogenic nitrogen may also affect manganese concentrations in groundwater. In parts of the northeastern U.S. containing poorly buffered soils, ∼40% of the samples with elevated manganese concentrations have pH values < 6 and elevated concentrations of nitrate relative to samples with pH ≥ 6, suggesting acidic recharge produced by the oxidation of ammonium in fertilizer helps mobilize manganese. An estimated 2.6 million people potentially consume groundwater with elevated manganese concentrations, the highest densities of which occur near rivers and in areas with organic carbon rich soil. Results from this study indicate land surface-soil-aquifer connections play an important role in producing elevated manganese concentrations in groundwater used for human consumption.

We estimate the location and population served by domestic wells in the contiguous United States in two ways: (1) the "Block Group Method" or BGM, uses data from the 1990 census, and (2) the "Road-Enhanced Method" or REM, refines the locations by using a buffer expansion and shrinkage technique along roadways to define areas where domestic wells exist. The fundamental assumption is that houses (and therefore domestic wells) are located near a named road. The results are presented as two nationally-consistent domestic-well population datasets. While both methods can be considered valid, the REM map is more precise in locating domestic wells; the REM map has a smaller amount of spatial bias (Type 1 and Type 2 errors nearly equal vs biased in Type 1), total error (10.9% vs 23.7%), and distance error (2.0km vs 2.7km), when comparing the REM and BGM maps to a calibration map in California. However, the BGM map is more inclusive of all potential locations for domestic wells. Independent domestic well datasets from the USGS, and the States of MN, NV, and TX show that the BGM captures about 5 to 10% more wells than the REM. One key difference between the BGM and the REM is the mapping of low density areas. The REM reduces areas mapped as low density by 57%, concentrating populations into denser regions. Therefore, if one is trying to capture all of the potential areas of domestic-well usage, then the BGM map may be more applicable. If location is more imperative, then the REM map is better at identifying areas of the landscape with the highest probability of finding a domestic well. Depending on the purpose of a study, a combination of both maps can be used., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Intense demand for water in the Central Valley of California and related increases in groundwater nitrate concentration threaten the sustainability of the groundwater resource. To assess contamination risk in the region, we developed a hybrid, non-linear, machine learning model within a statistical learning framework to predict nitrate contamination of groundwater to depths of approximately 500m below ground surface. A database of 145 predictor variables representing well characteristics, historical and current field and landscape-scale nitrogen mass balances, historical and current land use, oxidation/reduction conditions, groundwater flow, climate, soil characteristics, depth to groundwater, and groundwater age were assigned to over 6000 private supply and public supply wells measured previously for nitrate and located throughout the study area. The boosted regression tree (BRT) method was used to screen and rank variables to predict nitrate concentration at the depths of domestic and public well supplies. The novel approach included as predictor variables outputs from existing physically based models of the Central Valley. The top five most important predictor variables included two oxidation/reduction variables (probability of manganese concentration to exceed 50ppb and probability of dissolved oxygen concentration to be below 0.5ppm), field-scale adjusted unsaturated zone nitrogen input for the 1975 time period, average difference between precipitation and evapotranspiration during the years 1971-2000, and 1992 total landscape nitrogen input. Twenty-five variables were selected for the final model for log-transformed nitrate. In general, increasing probability of anoxic conditions and increasing precipitation relative to potential evapotranspiration had a corresponding decrease in nitrate concentration predictions. Conversely, increasing 1975 unsaturated zone nitrogen leaching flux and 1992 total landscape nitrogen input had an increasing relative impact on nitrate predictions. Three-dimensional visualization indicates that nitrate predictions depend on the probability of anoxic conditions and other factors, and that nitrate predictions generally decreased with increasing groundwater age., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Water wells (n = 116) overlying the Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, and Haynesville Shale hydrocarbon production areas were sampled for chemical, isotopic, and groundwater-age tracers to investigate the occurrence and sources of selected hydrocarbons in groundwater. Methane isotopes and hydrocarbon gas compositions indicate most of the methane in the wells was biogenic and produced by the CO 2 reduction pathway, not from thermogenic shale gas. Two samples contained methane from the fermentation pathway that could be associated with hydrocarbon degradation based on their co-occurrence with hydrocarbons such as ethylbenzene and butane. Benzene was detected at low concentrations (<0.15 μg/L), but relatively high frequencies (2.4-13.3% of samples), in the study areas. Eight of nine samples containing benzene had groundwater ages >2500 years, indicating the benzene was from subsurface sources such as natural hydrocarbon migration or leaking hydrocarbon wells. One sample contained benzene that could be from a surface release associated with hydrocarbon production activities based on its age (10 ± 2.4 years) and proximity to hydrocarbon wells. Groundwater travel times inferred from the age-data indicate decades or longer may be needed to fully assess the effects of potential subsurface and surface releases of hydrocarbons on the wells.

Samples collected about one decade apart from 1105 wells from across the U.S. were compiled to assess whether uranium concentrations in the arid climate are linked to changing bicarbonate concentrations in the irrigated western U.S. Uranium concentrations in groundwater were high in the arid climate in the western U.S, where uranium sources are abundant. Sixty-four wells (6%) were above the U.S. EPA MCL of 30μg/L; all but one are in the arid west. Concentrations were low to non-detectable in the humid climate. Large uranium and bicarbonate increases (differences are greater than the uncertainty in concentrations) occur in 109 wells between decade 1 and decade 2. Similarly, large uranium and bicarbonate decreases occur in 76 wells between the two decades. Significantly more wells are concordant (uranium and bicarbonate are both going the same direction) than discordant (uranium and bicarbonate are going opposite directions) (p<0.001; Chi-square test). The largest percent difference in uranium concentrations occur in wells where uranium is increasing and bicarbonate is also increasing. These large differences occur mostly in the arid climate. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that changing uranium concentrations are linked to changes in bicarbonate in irrigated areas of the western U.S., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Key characteristics of California groundwater systems related to aquifer vulnerability, sustainability, recharge locations and mechanisms, and anthropogenic impact on recharge are revealed in a spatial geostatistical analysis of a unique data set of tritium, noble gases and other isotopic analyses unprecedented in size at nearly 4000 samples. The correlation length of key groundwater residence time parameters varies between tens of kilometers ((3)H; age) to the order of a hundred kilometers ((4)Heter; (14)C; (3)Hetrit). The correlation length of parameters related to climate, topography and atmospheric processes is on the order of several hundred kilometers (recharge temperature; δ(18)O). Young groundwater ages that highlight regional recharge areas are located in the eastern San Joaquin Valley, in the southern Santa Clara Valley Basin, in the upper LA basin and along unlined canals carrying Colorado River water, showing that much of the recent recharge in central and southern California is dominated by river recharge and managed aquifer recharge. Modern groundwater is found in wells with the top open intervals below 60 m depth in the southeastern San Joaquin Valley, Santa Clara Valley and Los Angeles basin, as the result of intensive pumping and/or managed aquifer recharge operations., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Data from 11,000 public supply wells in 87 study areas were used to assess the quality of nearly all of the groundwater used for public supply in California. Two metrics were developed for quantifying groundwater quality: area with high concentrations (km(2) or proportion) and equivalent-population relying upon groundwater with high concentrations (number of people or proportion). Concentrations are considered high if they are above a human-health benchmark. When expressed as proportions, the metrics are area-weighted and population-weighted detection frequencies. On a statewide-scale, about 20% of the groundwater used for public supply has high concentrations for one or more constituents (23% by area and 18% by equivalent-population). On the basis of both area and equivalent-population, trace elements are more prevalent at high concentrations than either nitrate or organic compounds at the statewide-scale, in eight of nine hydrogeologic provinces, and in about three-quarters of the study areas. At a statewide-scale, nitrate is more prevalent than organic compounds based on area, but not on the basis of equivalent-population. The approach developed for this paper, unlike many studies, recognizes the importance of appropriately weighting information when changing scales, and is broadly applicable to other areas.

Aquifer vulnerability models were developed to map groundwater nitrate concentration at domestic and public-supply well depths in the Central Valley, California. We compared three modeling methods for ability to predict nitrate concentration >4 mg/L: logistic regression (LR), random forest classification (RFC), and random forest regression (RFR). All three models indicated processes of nitrogen fertilizer input at the land surface, transmission through coarse-textured, well-drained soils, and transport in the aquifer to the well screen. The total percent correct predictions were similar among the three models (69-82%), but RFR had greater sensitivity (84% for shallow wells and 51% for deep wells). The results suggest that RFR can better identify areas with high nitrate concentration but that LR and RFC may better describe bulk conditions in the aquifer. A unique aspect of the modeling approach was inclusion of outputs from previous, physically based hydrologic and textural models as predictor variables, which were important to the models. Vertical water fluxes in the aquifer and percent coarse material above the well screen were ranked moderately high-to-high in the RFR models, and the average vertical water flux during the irrigation season was highly significant (p < 0.0001) in logistic regression.

Twenty-four halogenated volatile organic compounds (hVOCs) and SF₆ were measured in groundwater samples collected from 312 wells across California at concentrations as low as 10⁻¹² grams per kilogram groundwater. The hVOCs detected are predominately anthropogenic (i.e., "ahVOCs") and as such their distribution delineates where groundwaters are impacted and susceptible to human activity. ahVOC detections were broadly consistent with air-saturated water concentrations in equilibrium with a combination of industrial-era global and regional hVOC atmospheric abundances. However, detection of ahVOCs in nearly all of the samples collected, including ancient groundwaters, suggests the presence of a sampling or analytical artifact that confounds interpretation of the very-low concentration ahVOC data. To increase our confidence in ahVOC detections we establish screening levels based on ahVOC concentrations in deep wells drawing ancient groundwater in Owens Valley. Concentrations of ahVOCs below the Owens Valley screening levels account for a large number of the detections in prenuclear groundwater across California without significant loss of ahVOC detections in shallow, recently recharged groundwaters. Over 80% of the groundwaters in this study contain at least one ahVOC after screening, indicating that the footprint of human industry is nearly ubiquitous and that most California groundwaters are vulnerable to contamination from land-surface activities.

Statistical evaluation of two large statewide data sets from the California State Water Board's Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment Program (1973 wells) and the California Department of Public Health (12,417 wells) reveals that benzene occurs infrequently (1.7%) and at generally low concentrations (median detected concentration of 0.024 μg/L) in groundwater used for public supply in California. When detected, benzene is more often related to geogenic (45% of detections) than anthropogenic sources (27% of detections). Similar relations are evident for the sum of 17 hydrocarbons analyzed. Benzene occurs most frequently and at the highest concentrations in old, brackish, and reducing groundwater; the detection frequency was 13.0% in groundwater with tritium <1 pCi/L, specific conductance >1600 μS/cm, and anoxic conditions. This groundwater is typically deep (>180 m). Benzene occurs somewhat less frequently in recent, shallow, and reducing groundwater; the detection frequency was 2.6% in groundwater with tritium ≥1 pCi/L, depth <30 m, and anoxic conditions. Evidence for geogenic sources of benzene include: higher concentrations and detection frequencies with increasing well depth, groundwater age, and proximity to oil and gas fields; and higher salinity and lower chloride/iodide ratios in old groundwater with detections of benzene, consistent with interactions with oil-field brines.

Pharmaceutical compounds were detected at low concentrations in 2.3% of 1231 samples of groundwater (median depth to top of screened interval in wells=61 m) used for public drinking-water supply in California. Samples were collected statewide for the California State Water Resources Control Board's Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Program. Of 14 pharmaceutical compounds analyzed, 7 were detected at concentrations greater than or equal to method detection limits: acetaminophen (used as an analgesic, detection frequency 0.32%, maximum concentration 1.89 μg/L), caffeine (stimulant, 0.24%, 0.29 μg/L), carbamazepine (mood stabilizer, 1.5%, 0.42 μg/L), codeine (opioid analgesic, 0.16%, 0.214 μg/L), p-xanthine (caffeine metabolite, 0.08%, 0.12 μg/L), sulfamethoxazole (antibiotic, 0.41%, 0.17 μg/L), and trimethoprim (antibiotic, 0.08%, 0.018 μg/L). Detection frequencies of pesticides (33%), volatile organic compounds not including trihalomethanes (23%), and trihalomethanes (28%) in the same 1231 samples were significantly higher. Median detected concentration of pharmaceutical compounds was similar to those of volatile organic compounds, and higher than that of pesticides. Pharmaceutical compounds were detected in 3.3% of the 855 samples containing modern groundwater (tritium activity>0.2 TU). Pharmaceutical detections were significantly positively correlated with detections of urban-use herbicides and insecticides, detections of volatile organic compounds, and percentage of urban land use around wells. Groundwater from the Los Angeles metropolitan area had higher detection frequencies of pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic compounds than groundwater from other areas of the state with similar proportions of urban land use. The higher detection frequencies may reflect that groundwater flow systems in Los Angeles area basins are dominated by engineered recharge and intensive groundwater pumping., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

We use data from 1626 groundwater samples collected in California, primarily from public drinking water supply wells, to investigate the distribution of perchlorate in deep groundwater under natural conditions. The wells were sampled for the California Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment Priority Basin Project. We develop a logistic regression model for predicting probabilities of detecting perchlorate at concentrations greater than multiple threshold concentrations as a function of climate (represented by an aridity index) and potential anthropogenic contributions of perchlorate (quantified as an anthropogenic score, AS). AS is a composite categorical variable including terms for nitrate, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds. Incorporating water-quality parameters in AS permits identification of perturbation of natural occurrence patterns by flushing of natural perchlorate salts from unsaturated zones by irrigation recharge as well as addition of perchlorate from industrial and agricultural sources. The data and model results indicate low concentrations (0.1-0.5 μg/L) of perchlorate occur under natural conditions in groundwater across a wide range of climates, beyond the arid to semiarid climates in which they mostly have been previously reported. The probability of detecting perchlorate at concentrations greater than 0.1 μg/L under natural conditions ranges from 50-70% in semiarid to arid regions of California and the Southwestern United States to 5-15% in the wettest regions sampled (the Northern California coast). The probability of concentrations above 1 μg/L under natural conditions is low (generally <3%).