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Microtubules play fundamental roles in the maintenance of neuronal processes and in synaptic function and plasticity. While dynamic microtubules are mainly composed of tyrosinated tubulin, long-lived microtubules contain detyrosinated tubulin, suggesting that the tubulin tyrosination/detyrosination cycle is a key player in the maintenance of microtubule dynamics and neuronal homeostasis, conditions that go awry in neurodegenerative diseases. In the tyrosination/detyrosination cycle, the C-terminal tyrosine of α-tubulin is removed by tubulin carboxypeptidases and re-added by tubulin tyrosine ligase (TTL). Here we show that TTL heterozygous mice exhibit decreased tyrosinated microtubules, reduced dendritic spine density and both synaptic plasticity and memory deficits. We further report decreased TTL expression in sporadic and familial Alzheimer’s disease, and reduced microtubule dynamics in human neurons harbouring the familial APP-V717I mutation. Finally, we show that synapses visited by dynamic microtubules are more resistant to oligomeric amyloid-β peptide toxicity and that expression of TTL, by restoring microtubule entry into spines, suppresses the loss of synapses induced by amyloid-β peptide. Together, our results demonstrate that a balanced tyrosination/detyrosination tubulin cycle is necessary for the maintenance of synaptic plasticity, is protective against amyloid-β peptide-induced synaptic damage and that this balance is lost in Alzheimer’s disease, providing evidence that defective tubulin retyrosination may contribute to circuit dysfunction during neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease.

(+)-4-Propyl-9-hydroxynaphthoxazine ((+)PHNO) is a high affinity, preferential dopamine D

“Ecstasy” [3,4-methylenedioxymetamphetamine (MDMA)] is of considerable interest in light of its prosocial properties and risks associated with widespread recreational use. Recently, it was found to bind trace amine-1 receptors (TA1Rs), which modulate dopaminergic transmission. Accordingly, using mice genetically deprived of TA1R (TA1-KO), we explored their significance to the actions of MDMA, which robustly activated human adenylyl cyclase-coupled TA1R transfected into HeLa cells. In wild-type (WT) mice, MDMA elicited a time-, dose-, and ambient temperature-dependent hypothermia and hyperthermia, whereasTA1-KOmice displayed hyperthermia only. MDMA-induced increases in dialysate levels of dopamine (DA) in dorsal striatum were amplified inTA1-KOmice, despite identical levels of MDMA itself. A similar facilitation of the influence of MDMA upon dopaminergic transmission was acquired in frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens, and induction of locomotion by MDMA was haloperidol-reversibly potentiated inTA1-KOversus WT mice. Conversely, genetic deletion of TA1R did not affect increases in DA levels evoked by para-chloroamphetamine (PCA), which was inactive at hTA1sites. The TA1R agonisto-phenyl-3-iodotyramine (o-PIT) blunted the DA-releasing actions of PCA bothin vivo(dialysis) andin vitro(synaptosomes) in WT but notTA1-KOanimals. MDMA-elicited increases in dialysis levels of serotonin (5-HT) were likewise greater inTA1-KOversus WT mice, and 5-HT-releasing actions of PCA were bluntedin vivoandin vitrobyo-PIT in WT mice only. In conclusion, TA1Rs exert an inhibitory influence on both dopaminergic and serotonergic transmission, and MDMA auto-inhibits its neurochemical and functional actions by recruitment of TA1R. These observations have important implications for the effects of MDMA in humans.

Though neurokinin(1) (NK(1)) receptors are implicated in depressed states and their treatment, selective antagonists have disappointed in clinical trials. Accordingly, we designed a novel ligand, S41744 (2-piperazin-1-yl-indan-2-carboxylic-acid-(3-chloro-5-fluoro-benzyl)-methyl-amide), which both blocks NK(1) receptors and interferes with serotonin (5-HT) reuptake. S41744 mimicked the selective antagonist aprepitant in binding human (h)NK(1) receptors and in antagonising Substance-P-mediated Extracellular-Regulated-Kinase phosphorylation (pK(B), 7.7). Further, it dose-dependently (0.63-40.0 mg/kg, i.p.) displaced ex vivo [(3)H]-[Sar(9),Met(O(2))(11)]-Substance P binding to gerbil striatum, attenuated formalin-induced hind-paw licking in gerbils, and antagonised locomotion induced by i.c.v. administration of the NK(1) agonist GR73632 to guinea pigs. Like paroxetine, S41744 recognised h5-HT transporters, reduced synaptosomal uptake of 5-HT (pK(B), 7.9), and dose-dependently (0.63-10.0 mg/kg) elevated dialysis levels of 5-HT in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of freely-moving guinea pigs. Further, S41744 increased extracellular levels of 5-HT in frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats to a greater extent than paroxetine, and its inhibitory influence upon serotonergic perikarya was blunted relative to its affinity for 5-HT transporters. S41744 more potently blocked stress-induced vocalizations in guinea pigs than aprepitant and paroxetine, and it was active in forced-swim and marble-burying procedures of putative antidepressant properties in mice. While aprepitant displayed anxiolytic actions in stress-induced foot-tapping and social interaction tests in gerbils, paroxetine was anxiogenic and S41744 "neutral", reflecting balanced NK(1) antagonism and suppression of 5-HT reuptake. Moreover, S41744 shared anxiolytic actions of aprepitant in the rat Vogel Conflict Test. In conclusion, S41744 is an innovative NK(1) antagonist/5-HT reuptake inhibitor justifying further evaluation for treatment of stress-related disorders.

Though neurokinin(1) (NK(1)) receptor antagonists are active in experimental models of depression, clinical efficacy has proven disappointing. This encourages interest in association of NK(1) receptor blockade with inhibition of serotonin (5-HT) reuptake. The selective NK(1) antagonist, GR205171, dose-dependently enhanced citalopram-induced elevations of extracellular levels of 5-HT in frontal cortex, an action expressed stereospecifically vs its less active distomer, GR226206. Further, increases in 5-HT levels in dorsal hippocampus, basolateral amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and striatum were likewise potentiated, and GR205171 similarly facilitated the influence of fluoxetine upon levels of 5-HT, as well as dopamine and noradrenaline. In parallel electrophysiological studies, the inhibitory influence of citalopram and fluoxetine upon raphe-localized serotonergic neurones was stereospecifically blunted by GR205171. Antidepressant actions of citalopram in a forced-swim test in mice were stereospecifically potentiated by GR205171, and it also enhanced attenuation by citalopram of stress-related ultrasonic vocalizations in rats. Further, GR205171 and citalopram additively abrogated the advance in circadian rhythms provoked by exposure to light in hamsters. By contrast, GR205171 stereospecifically blocked anxiogenic actions of citalopram in social interaction procedures in rats and gerbils, and stereospecifically abolished facilitation of fear-induced foot tapping by fluoxetine in gerbils. By analogy to GR205171, a further NK(1) antagonist, RP67580, enhanced the influence of citalopram upon frontocortical levels of 5-HT and potentiated its actions in the forced swim test. In conclusion, NK(1)receptor blockade differentially modulates functional actions of SSRIs: antidepressant properties are reinforced, whereas anxiogenic effects are attenuated. Combined NK(1) receptor antagonism/5-HT reuptake inhibition may offer advantages in the management of depressed and anxious states.

The novel benzopyranopyrrolidine, S33138 [N-[4-[2-[(3aS,9bR)-8-cyano-1,3a,4,9b-tetrahydro[1]benzopyrano[3,4-c]pyrrol-2(3H)-yl)-ethyl]phenylacetamide], is a preferential antagonist of cloned human D(3) versus D(2L) and D(2S) receptors. In mice, S33138 (0.04-2.5 mg/kg i.p.) increased levels of mRNA encoding c-fos in D(3) receptor-rich Isles of Calleja and nucleus accumbens more potently than in D(2) receptor-rich striatum. Furthermore, chronic (3 weeks) administration of S33138 to rats reduced the number of spontaneously active dopaminergic neurones in the ventral tegmental area (0.16-10.0 p.o.) more potently than in the substantia nigra (10.0). In primates treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, antiparkinson actions of the D(3)/D(2) agonist, ropinirole, were potentiated by low doses of S33138 (0.01-0.16 p.o.) but diminished by a high dose (2.5). Consistent with antagonism of postsynaptic D(3)/D(2) sites, S33138 attenuated hypothermia and yawns elicited by the D(3)/D(2) agonist 7-OH-DPAT [(+)-7-dihydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)-tetralin] in rats, and it blocked (0.01-0.63, s.c.) discriminative properties of PD128,907 [(+)-(4aR,10bR)-3,4, 4a,10b-tetrahydro-4-propyl-2H,5H-[1]benzopyrano-[4,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-9-ol; trans-N-[4-[2-(6-cyano-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-2-yl)ethyl]cyclohexyl]-4-quinolininecarboxamide]. Suggesting antagonist properties at D(3)/D(2) autoreceptors, S33138 prevented (0.16-2.5 s.c.) the inhibitory influence of PD128,907 upon dopamine release in frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and striatum and abolished (0.004-0.25 i.v.) its inhibition of ventral tegmental dopaminergic neuron firing. At higher doses, antagonist actions of S33138 (0.5-4.0 i.v.) at alpha(2C)-adrenoceptors were revealed by an increased firing rate of adrenergic perikarya. Finally, antagonism of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(7)) receptors was shown by blockade of 1-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl]-2-aminopropane-induced head twitches (0.63-10.0 s.c.) and 5-carboxytryptamine-induced hypothermia (2.5-20.0 i.p.), respectively. In conclusion, S33138 displays modest antagonist properties at central alpha(2C)-adrenoceptors, 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(7) receptors. Furthermore, in line with its in vitro actions, it more potently blocks cerebral populations of D(3) versus D(2) receptors.

These studies examined the influence of the selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) (5-HT)(1A) receptor partial agonist S15535 [4-(benzodioxan-5-yl)1-(indan-2-yl)piperazine] upon cholinergic transmission and cognitive function in rodents. In the absence of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, S15535 dose-dependently (0.04-5.0 mg/kg s.c.) elevated dialysis levels of acetylcholine in the frontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus of freely moving rats. In the cortex, the selective 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY100,635 [(N-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl]-N-(2-pyridinyl) cyclo-hexanecarboxamide) fumarate] dose-dependently (0.0025-0.63) blocked this action of S15535. By contrast, in dorsal hippocampus, WAY100,635 mimicked the induction of acetylcholine release by S15535. In a social recognition paradigm, S15535 dose-dependently (0.16-10.0) improved retention, an action blocked by WAY100,635 (0.16), which was ineffective alone. Furthermore, S15535 dose-dependently (0.04-2.5) and WAY100,635 reversibly abolished amnesic properties of the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine (0.63) in this procedure. Cognitive deficits provoked by scopolamine in autoshaping and Morris water-maze procedures were likewise blocked by S15535 at doses of 0.63 to 10.0 and 0.16 to 2.5, respectively. In a two-platform spatial discrimination task, in which S15535 similarly abrogates cognitive deficits elicited by scopolamine, injection of S15535 (1.0 and 10.0 microg) into dorsal hippocampus blocked amnesic effects of the 5-HT(1A) agonist 8-hydroxy-2-dipropylaminotetralin (0.5 microg). Finally, S15535 (0.16-0.63) improved performance in a spatial, delayed nonmatching to sample model in mice, and in an operant delayed nonmatching to sample model in old rats, S15535 (1.25-5.0 mg/kg p.o.) increased response accuracy and reduced latency to respond. In conclusion, S15535 reinforces frontocortical and hippocampal release of acetylcholine and displays a broad-based pattern of procognitive properties. Its actions involve both blockade of postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptors and engagement of 5-HT(1A) autoreceptors.

Although most antidepressants suppress serotonin (5-HT) and/or noradrenaline reuptake, blockade of 5-HT(2C) receptors and α(2)-adrenoceptors likewise enhances monoaminergic transmission. These sites are targeted by the urea derivative N- [4-methoxy-3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenyl]-1,2-dihydro-3-H-benzo[e]indole-3-carboxamide (S32212). S32212 was devoid of affinity for monoamine reuptake sites, yet displayed pronounced affinity (pK(i), 8.2) for constitutively active human 5-HT(2CINI) (h5-HT(2CINI)) receptors, behaving as an inverse agonist in reducing basal Gα(q) activation, [(3)H]inositol-phosphate production, and the spontaneous association of h5-HT(2CINI)-Renilla luciferase receptors with β-arrestin2-yellow fluorescent protein. Furthermore, upon 18-h pretreatment, S32212 enhanced the plasma membrane expression of h5-HT(2CINI) receptors as visualized by confocal microscopy and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Its actions were prevented by the neutral antagonist 6-chloro-5-methyl-N-[6-(2-methylpyridin-3-yloxy)pyridin-3-yl]indoline-1-carboxamide (SB242,084), which also impeded the induction by long-term exposure to S32212 of otherwise absent Ca(2+) mobilization in mouse cortical neurones. In vivo, S32212 blunted the inhibitory influence of the 5-HT(2C) agonist 2-(3-chlorobenzyloxy)-6-(1-piperazinyl)pyrazine (CP809,101) on ventrotegmental dopaminergic neurones. S32212 also blocked 5-HT-induced Gα(q) and phospholipase C activation at the h5-HT(2A) and, less potently, h5-HT(2B) receptors and suppressed the discriminative stimulus properties of the 5-HT(2A) agonist 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane in rats. S32212 manifested marked affinity for human α(2A)- (pK(i) 7.2), α(2B)- (pK(i) 8.2), and α(2C)- (pK(i) 7.4) adrenoceptors, at which it abolished noradrenaline-induced recruitment of Gα(i3), Gα(o), adenylyl cyclase, and extracellular-regulated kinase1/2. Moreover, S32212 dose-dependently abolished the discriminative stimulus effects of the α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist (S)-spiro[(1-oxa-2-amino-3-azacyclopent-2-ene)-4,2'-(1',2',3',4'-tetrahydronaphthalene)] (S18616). Finally, S32212 displayed negligible affinity for α(1A)-adrenoceptors, histamine H(1) receptors, and muscarinic M(1) receptors. In conclusion, S32212 behaves as an inverse agonist at h5-HT(2C) receptors and as an antagonist at human α(2)-adrenoceptors (and h5-HT(2A) receptors). Its promising profile in preclinical models potentially relevant to the treatment of depression is described in J Pharmacol Exp Ther 340:765-780, 2012.

The present studies characterized the functional profile of N-[4-methoxy-3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenyl]-1,2-dihydro-3-H-benzo[e]indole-3-carboxamide) (S32212), a combined serotonin (5-HT)(2C) receptor inverse agonist and α(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist that also possesses 5-HT(2A) antagonist properties (J Pharmacol Exp Ther 340:750-764, 2012). Upon parenteral and/or oral administration, dose-dependent (0.63-40.0 mg/kg) actions were observed in diverse procedures. Both acute and subchronic administration of S32212 reduced immobility time in a forced-swim test in rats. Acutely, it also suppressed marble burying and aggressive behavior in mice. Long-term administration of S32212 was associated with rapid (1 week) and sustained (5 weeks) normalization of sucrose intake in rats exposed to chronic mild stress and with elevated levels of mRNA encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampus and amygdala (2 weeks). S32212 accelerated the firing rate of adrenergic perikarya in the locus coeruleus and elevated dialysis levels of noradrenaline in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of freely moving rats. S32212 also elevated the frontocortical levels of dopamine and acetylcholine, whereas 5-HT, amino acids, and histamine were unaffected. These neurochemical actions were paralleled by "promnemonic" properties: blockade of scopolamine-induced deficits in radial maze performance and social recognition and reversal of delay-induced impairments in social recognition, social novelty discrimination, and novel object recognition. It also showed anxiolytic actions in a Vogel conflict procedure. Furthermore, in an electroencephalographic study of sleep architecture, S32212 enhanced slow-wave and rapid eye movement sleep, while decreasing waking. Finally, chronic administration of S32212 neither elevated body weight nor perturbed sexual behavior in male rats. In conclusion, S32212 displays a functional profile consistent with improved mood and cognitive performance, together with satisfactory tolerance.

Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) 1 receptors are widely expressed in limbic structures and cortex. Their inactivation is associated with anxiolytic and antidepressive properties but little information is available concerning cognition. This issue was addressed using the selective antagonists, SNAP-7941 and GW3430, in a social recognition paradigm in rats. The muscarinic blocker, scopolamine (1.25 mg/kg s.c.), reduced social recognition, an action dose-dependently blocked by SNAP-7941 and GW3430 (0.63-10.0 and 20.0-80.0 mg/kg i.p., respectively) which did not themselves display amnesic properties. Further, in a protocol where a spontaneous deficit was induced by a prolonged inter-session delay, SNAP-7941 and GW3430 dose-dependently enhanced social recognition. In dialysis studies, SNAP-7941 (0.63-40.0 mg/kg i.p.) and GW3430 (10.0-40.0 mg/kg i.p.) elevated extracellular levels of acetylcholine (ACh) in the frontal cortex (FCX) of freely moving rats. The SNAP-7941 effect was specific, as it did not increase levels of ACh in ventral and dorsal hippocampus: moreover, it did not modify levels of noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin and glutamate in FCX. Active doses of SNAP-7941 and GW3430 corresponded to doses (2.5-40.0 and 10.0-80.0 mg/kg i.p., respectively) exerting anxiolytic properties in Vogel conflict and ultrasonic vocalization tests, and antidepressant actions in forced swim, isolation-induced aggression and marble-burying procedures. In contrast to SNAP-7941 and GW3430, the benzodiazepine, diazepam, decreased social recognition and dialysate levels of ACh, while the tricyclic, imipramine, reduced social recognition and failed to enhance cholinergic transmission. In conclusion, at anxiolytic and antidepressant doses, SNAP-7941 and GW3430 improve social recognition and elevate extracellular ACh levels in FCX. This profile differentiates MCH 1 receptor antagonists from conventional anxiolytic and antidepressant agents.

The novel benzopyranopyrrolidine, S33138 [N-[4-[2-[(3aS,9bR)-8-cyano-1,3a,4,9b-tetrahydro[1]benzopyrano[3,4-c]pyrrol-2(3H)-yl)-ethyl]phenylacetamide], is a preferential antagonist of cloned human D(3) versus D(2L) and D(2S) receptors. In mice, S33138 (0.04-2.5 mg/kg i.p.) increased levels of mRNA encoding c-fos in D(3) receptor-rich Isles of Calleja and nucleus accumbens more potently than in D(2) receptor-rich striatum. Furthermore, chronic (3 weeks) administration of S33138 to rats reduced the number of spontaneously active dopaminergic neurones in the ventral tegmental area (0.16-10.0 p.o.) more potently than in the substantia nigra (10.0). In primates treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, antiparkinson actions of the D(3)/D(2) agonist, ropinirole, were potentiated by low doses of S33138 (0.01-0.16 p.o.) but diminished by a high dose (2.5). Consistent with antagonism of postsynaptic D(3)/D(2) sites, S33138 attenuated hypothermia and yawns elicited by the D(3)/D(2) agonist 7-OH-DPAT [(+)-7-dihydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)-tetralin] in rats, and it blocked (0.01-0.63, s.c.) discriminative properties of PD128,907 [(+)-(4aR,10bR)-3,4, 4a,10b-tetrahydro-4-propyl-2H,5H-[1]benzopyrano-[4,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-9-ol; trans-N-[4-[2-(6-cyano-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-2-yl)ethyl]cyclohexyl]-4-quinolininecarboxamide]. Suggesting antagonist properties at D(3)/D(2) autoreceptors, S33138 prevented (0.16-2.5 s.c.) the inhibitory influence of PD128,907 upon dopamine release in frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and striatum and abolished (0.004-0.25 i.v.) its inhibition of ventral tegmental dopaminergic neuron firing. At higher doses, antagonist actions of S33138 (0.5-4.0 i.v.) at alpha(2C)-adrenoceptors were revealed by an increased firing rate of adrenergic perikarya. Finally, antagonism of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(7)) receptors was shown by blockade of 1-[2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl]-2-aminopropane-induced head twitches (0.63-10.0 s.c.) and 5-carboxytryptamine-induced hypothermia (2.5-20.0 i.p.), respectively. In conclusion, S33138 displays modest antagonist properties at central alpha(2C)-adrenoceptors, 5-HT(2A) and 5-HT(7) receptors. Furthermore, in line with its in vitro actions, it more potently blocks cerebral populations of D(3) versus D(2) receptors.

Though dopaminergic mechanisms modulate cholinergic transmission and cognitive function, the significance of specific receptor subtypes remains uncertain. Here, we examined the roles of dopamine D(3) versus D(2) receptors. By analogy with tacrine (0.16-2.5 mg/kg, s.c.), the selective D(3) receptor antagonists, S33084 (0.01-0.63) and SB277,011 (0.63-40.0), elicited dose-dependent, pronounced and sustained elevations in dialysis levels of acetylcholine (ACh) in the frontal cortex, but not the hippocampus, of freely-moving rats. The actions of these antagonists were stereospecifically mimicked by (+)S14297 (1.25), whereas its inactive distomer, (-)S17777, was ineffective. The preferential D(2) receptor antagonist, L741,626 (10.0), failed to modify levels of ACh. S33084 (0.01-0.63) and SB277,011 (0.16-2.5) also mimicked tacrine (0.04-0.63) by dose-dependently attenuating the deleterious influence of scopolamine (1.25) upon social memory (recognition by an adult rat of a juvenile conspecific). Further, (+)S14297 (1.25) versus (-)S17777 stereospecifically blocked the action of scopolamine. Using an intersession interval of 120 min (spontaneous loss of recognition), S33084 (0.04-0.63), SB277,011 (0.16-10.0) and (+)S14297 (0.63-10.0) likewise mimicked tacrine (0.16-2.5) in enhancing social memory. In contrast, L741,626 (0.16-10.0) displayed amnesic properties. In conclusion, selective blockade of D(3) receptors facilitates frontocortical cholinergic transmission and improves social memory in rats. These data support the pertinence of D(3) receptors as a target for treatment of disorders in which cognitive function is compromised.

Although dopaminergic mechanisms are known to modulate cognitive function and cholinergic transmission, their pharmacological characterization remains incomplete. Herein, the role of D1 sites was evaluated employing neurochemical and behavioural approaches. By analogy to the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, galantamine (0.0025-0.63 mg/kg s.c.), the selective and high efficacy D1 receptor agonist, SKF 82958, dose-dependently (0.0025-0.63), robustly and potently enhanced extracellular levels of acetylcholine (ACh) in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of freely moving rats. A further agonist, SKF 81297 (0.04-0.63), mimicked this action whereas the selective antagonist, SCH 23390 (0.00063-0.63), decreased levels of ACh. In the presence of SCH 23390 (0.08), the facilitatory influence of SKF 82958 (0.04) upon ACh levels was abolished. In a model of social memory (recognition of a juvenile by an adult rat), galantamine (0.04-0.63), SKF 82958 (0.01-0.16) and SKF 81297 (0.001-0.16) dose-dependently abrogated amnesic effects of the muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine (1.25). Further, under conditions of spontaneous loss of recognition, mimicking the effects of galantamine (0.04-2.5), SKF 82958 (0.01-0.16) and SKF 81297 (0.04-1.25) dose-dependently and specifically facilitated social recognition. Conversely, SCH 23390 (0.0025-0.04) exerted a modest negative influence upon social recognition and, in its presence, the pro-cognitive properties of SKF 82958 were blocked. In conclusion, D1 receptors exert a tonic, facilitatory influence upon cholinergic transmission and social recognition. Although the relationship between these actions awaits further clarification, these data underpin the relevance of D1 receptors to CNS disorders in which cholinergic transmission and social cognition are disrupted.

These studies evaluated the potential antiparkinsonian properties of the novel dopamine D(3)/D(2) receptor agonist S32504 [(+)-trans-3,4,4a,5,6, 10b-hexahydro-9-carbamoyl-4-propyl-2H-naphth[1,2-b]-1,4-oxazine] in comparison with those of the clinically employed agonist ropinirole. In rats with a unilateral, 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of the substantia nigra, S32504 (0.0025-0.04 mg/kg, s.c.) more potently elicited contralateral rotation than S32601 [(-)-trans-3,4,4a,5,6, 10b-hexahydro-9-carbamoyl-4-propyl-2H-naphth-[1,2-b]-1,4-oxazine (its less active enantiomer)], ropinirole, and l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA). Rotation elicited by S32504 was blocked by the D(2)/D(3) receptor antagonists haloperidol and raclopride and by the D(2) antagonist L741,626 [4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(1H-indol-3-ylmethyl)piperidin-4-ol], but not by the D(3) antagonist S33084 [(3aR,9bS)-N-[4-(8-cyano-1,3a,4,9b-tetrahydro-3H-benzopyrano[3,4-c]pyrrole-2-yl)-butyl]-(4-phenyl)benzamide]. As assessed by dialysis in both lesioned and nonlesioned animals, S32504 (0.04-2.5 mg/kg, s.c.) reduced striatal levels of acetylcholine. This effect was blocked by raclopride, haloperidol, and L741,626 but not S33084. In rats treated with reserpine, hypolocomotion was reversed by S32504 and, less potently, by ropinirole. In "unprimed" marmosets treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, both s.c. (0.01-0.04 mg/kg) and p.o. (0.04-1.25 mg/kg) administration of S32504 dose-dependently and rapidly (within 10 min) increased locomotor activity and reduced disability. Furthermore, S32504 dose-dependently reversed bradykinesia and improved posture in "L-DOPA-primed" animals, whereas eliciting less pronounced dyskinesia than l-DOPA. Finally, in terminally differentiated SH-SY5Y cells presenting a dopaminergic phenotype, S32504, but not S32601, abrogated the neurotoxic effects of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium, an action inhibited by raclopride and S33084 but not L741,626. Ropinirole was weakly neuroprotective in this model. In conclusion, S32504 displays potent and stereospecific activity in rodent, primate, and cellular models of antiparkinsonian properties. Although activation of D(2) receptors is crucial to the motor actions of S32504, engagement of D(3) receptors contributes to its neuroprotective properties.

The GABAergic neurons represent a major neuronal population in the basal ganglia. Although alterations in serotonin (5-HT) transmission are associated with neurodegenerative diseases involving these regions, the influence exerted by 5-HT afferents on GABAergic populations remains poorly understood. Here, we examined the consequences of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine-induced lesion of 5-HT neurons on glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) activity, mRNA expression of the two isoforms of the enzyme, GAD65 and GAD67, GABA uptake, and extracellular GABA levels in the striatum. The 5-HT depletion produced an increase in GAD activity without modifying GAD65 and GAD67 mRNA levels, suggesting that 5-HT acts at the posttranscriptional level to regulate striatal GABA synthesis. No change in GAD activity was measured in the main striatal target structures, the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Striatal GABA uptake and extracellular levels of GABA measured under basal conditions in freely moving rats were maintained in a normal range following 5-HT deprivation. By contrast, depolarization-induced increases in extracellular levels of GABA were larger in the striatum of 5-HT-deprived rats than in controls, which may be accounted for by an increase in a releasable pool of GABA due to increased synthesis rate. Together, these results suggest that 5-HT afferents may exert a phasic inhibitory control on striatal GABA transmission. Therefore, a decrease in striatal 5-HT transmission in disease states, such as Parkinson's disease, may contribute to pathological changes in striatal GABA neuron activity by increasing their reactivity to depolarizing stimuli.