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Mid-crustal fault rheology is controlled by alternating brittle and plastic deformation mechanisms, which cause feedback cycles that influence earthquake behavior. Detailed mapping and microstructural observations in the Pofadder Shear Zone (Namibia and South Africa) reveal a lithologically heterogeneous shear zone core with quartz-rich mylonites and ultramylonites, plastically overprinted pseudotachylyte and active shear folds. We present evidence for a positive feedback cycle in which coseismic grain size reduction facilitates active shear folding by enhancing competency contrasts and promoting crystal plastic flow. Shear folding strengthens a portion of a shear zone by limb rotation, focusing deformation and promoting plastic flow or brittle slip in resulting areas of localized high stress. Using quartz paleopiezometry, we estimate strain and slip rates consistent with other studies of exhumed shear zones and modern plate boundary faults, helping establish the Pofadder Shear Zone as an ancient analogue to modern, continental-scale, strike-slip faults. This feedback cycle influences seismicity patterns at the scale of study (10s of meters) and possibly larger scales as well, and contributes to bulk strengthening of the brittle-plastic transition on modern plate boundary faults.

Pore fluids migrating through the deep section of continental strike-slip fault zones have been invoked to explain such phenomena as tectonic tremor, stress transfer across the brittle-ductile transition, and short timescales of co-seismic healing. In this contribution, we describe a coseismic mechanism for forming transient vertical fluid conduits within dilational jogs in strike-slip faults. We present field observations of breccias that formed coseismically at dilational stepovers in the dextral Pofadder Shear Zone, a ∼ 1 G a exhumed continental strike-slip fault in South Africa and Namibia. These breccias are interpreted to have formed when tensile fractures emanating from rupture tips intersected mylonitic foliation parallel to the rupture surface, which then failed, disaggregating the rock. We used quartz textures in the mylonites determined by electron backscatter diffraction to uniquely compare the orientation of each clast to the neighboring wall rock and constrain finite clast rotation within breccia bodies. Comparison of two- and three-dimensional rotation patterns show that clast trajectories are highly scattered when decoupled from wall rock, suggesting that Pofadder breccias were not formed by gradual plucking of clasts during slip. The dilational breccia bodies have sub-vertical geometries and high porosities relative to the host mylonites. We infer that the opening of these breccias may have created instantaneous, temporary vertical pathways for fluid draining through the brittle-plastic transition. These pathways healed post-seismically by cementation or ductile creep along the fault. The connection of many adjacent and overprinting breccia bodies through time provides a mechanism for fluid transport on a 10 s of km scale though the middle crust.

Eocene to Pliocene paleochannels of the Sierra Nevada (California, USA) were first exploited for gold placer deposits during the California gold rush (1848), and then mapped in surveys more than century ago. The surveys showed that the paleochannels flowed westward, like the modern rivers of the range; it then was assumed that the heads of the paleochannels were at the modern range crest. A first paradigm shift occurred ∼50 yr ago, when it was recognized that at least some of the paleochannel fill was sourced from the region of the current state of Nevada, and it was proposed that the Sierra Nevada range was younger than the paleochannels (younger than 6 Ma). More recent work has demonstrated that Sierran paleochannels are ancient features that formed on the shoulder of a broad high uplift (the Nevadaplano) formed during Cretaceous crustal shortening; the headwaters were in central Nevada prior to disruption of the plateau by Basin and Range extension. A second paradigm shift occurred in the past decade: the Sierra Nevada range front is formed of north-northwest transtensional structures of the younger than 12 Ma Walker Lane belt, not north-south to north-northeast–south-southwest extensional structures of the Basin and Range. In this paper we use detailed geologic mapping to reconstruct the paleogeographic evolution of three Oligocene to Pliocene east-west paleochannels in the central Sierra Nevada, and their progressive south to north derangement by Walker Lane structures: the Stanislaus in the south, the Cataract in the middle, and the Mokelumne in the north. Previous work has shown that east-west Nevadaplano paleochannels in the central Sierra have four stratigraphic sequences floored by erosional unconformities; we describe distinguishing characteristics between the ancient Nevadaplano paleochannels and the north-northwest–deranged paleochannels of the Walker Lane grabens. In the east-west paleochannels unconformity 1 is the deepest, eroded into mesozonal Cretaceous plutons; it is overlain by the Oligocene to early Miocene Valley Springs Formation (sequence 1), consisting of ignimbrites erupted ∼250 km to the east in Nevada. Sequence 1 is the most useful for tracing the courses of the paleochannels because it was deposited before faulting began; however, it is incompletely preserved, due to erosion along unconformity 2 (with as much as 500 m of relief) as well as later erosional events. Sequence 2 consists of ca. 16–12 Ma andesitic volcaniclastic rocks referred to as the Relief Peak Formation; it occurs in all three paleochannels (Stanislaus, Cataract, and Mokelumne) as stratified fluvial and debris flow deposits, with abundant cut and fill structures. However, we show for the first time that Relief Peak Formation also forms the basal fill of a Walker Lane transtensional basin system that began to form by ca. 12 Ma, in a full graben along what is now the Sierra Crest, and in transfer zone basins and half-grabens on what is now the eastern range front. The Relief Peak Formation in the Walker Lane transtensional basins consists of massive (nonstratified) andesitic debris flow deposits and debris avalanche deposits, with slabs as much as 2 km long, including slabs of the Valley Springs Formation. Sequence 3 in the Nevadaplano paleochannels consists of distinctive, voluminous high-K lavas and ignimbrites of the Stanislaus Group. The lavas were erupted from fissures in the transtensional Sierra Crest graben-vent system, which beheaded the Stanislaus paleochannel prior to development of unconformity 3 and eruption of the voluminous basal lavas, referred to as the Table Mountain Latite (TML). In the Cataract paleochannel, TML lavas are inset as much as 100 m into the Relief Peak Formation along unconformity 3, indicating fluvial reincision within the paleochannel; TML lavas were ponded in the graben-vent system to thicknesses 6 times greater than the paleochannel fill, with no reincision surfaces. Sequence 3 ignimbrites of the Stanislaus Group (Eureka Valley Tuff) were erupted from the Little Walker caldera, and mark the course of all three paleochannels, with channel reincision surfaces between them (but not in the grabens). Sequence 3 lavas in the paleochannels differ from those in the grabens by having interstratified fluvial deposits, stretched vesicles parallel to the paleochannels, tree molds, peperitic bases, and kuppaberg (cobble jointed) tops, which form when water penetrates into a cooling lava along vertical joints, allowing secondary joints to form perpendicular to them. The Cataract paleochannel was deranged from its ancient (Mesozoic) east-west Nevadaplano trend into the north-northwest Walker Lane tectonic trend prior to development of unconformity 4 and deposition of sequence 4 (Disaster Peak Formation). The north-northwest–deranged Cataract paleochannel is along the Sierra Crest between the Stanislaus and Mokelumne paleochannels, with fluvial deposits indicating northward flow; this paleochannel is perpendicular to the ancient east-west Nevadaplano paleochannels, and parallel to modern Walker Lane drainages, indicating tectonic reorganization of the landscape ca. 9–5 Ma. This derangement was followed by progressive beheading of the Mokelumne paleochannel, development of the Ebbetts Pass pull-apart basin (ca. 6 Ma) and the Ebbetts Pass stratovolcano within it (ca. 5–4 Ma), which fed lava into the relict Mokelumne paleochannel. The derangement of central Sierran paleochannels proceeded as follows, from south to north: (1) the Stanislaus paleochannel was beheaded by ca. 11 Ma; (2) the Cataract paleochannel became deranged from an east-west Nevadaplano trend into a north-northwest Walker Lane trend by ca. 9 Ma, now exposed along the Sierran crest; and (3) the Mokelumne paleochannel was beheaded by ca. 6–5 Ma, and the Carson Pass–Kirkwood paleochannel several kilometers to the north was deranged from east-west into the north-northwest Hope Valley graben ca. 6 Ma. The next paleochannel to the north is in the southern part of the northern Sierra at Lake Tahoe, and based on published descriptions was beheaded ca. 3 Ma. The timing of paleochannel beheading corresponds to the northward migration of the Mendocino Triple Junction and northward propagation of the Walker Lane transtensional strain regime. This paper illustrates in detail the interplay between tectonics and drainage development, exportable to a very broad variety of settings.

Structural mapping, chemical reconnaissance of thermal manifestations, soil chemistry including CO2 (soil gas), and shallow temperature measurements were employed in conjunction with petrographic, fluid inclusion, isotopic, and bulk rock chemical analyses of drill cutting samples to identify the characteristics and controls of hydrothermal fluid upwelling and outflow in the Joaquina geothermal system, Guatemala. Evidence is provided for a rapidly-upflowing, meteorically-derived Na-bicarbonate(-sulfate) geothermal fluid (a minority category of geothermal fluid compositions comparable to that found in similar non-volcanic systems). The reservoir temperature, based on the least-diluted samples, is estimated to be 175–185 °C. Carbon isotopic analyses of soil gas and sulfur isotopic analyses of sulfide minerals in drill core and cuttings provide insights into the origin of volatiles in the Joaquina system. These data support the notion of CO2, CH4, and sulfur that are products of hydrothermal alteration of organic-rich metasediments of the El Tambor Complex, a unit that likely represents a major component of the stratigraphy in the Joaquina system. Hydrothermal upflow in the region is controlled by interaction between NE-striking sinistral faults and ESE-striking normal faults. Paleo-hydrostatic conditions estimated from fluid inclusion studies indicate a minimum age of 45 ka for the commencement of geothermal activity in the region. The natural thermal output of the Joaquina system is estimated conservatively at 32.2 MWth. This study represents the first detailed field investigation of a non-volcanic geothermal system in Guatemala, and provides insight into the nature and controls of thermal areas inland from the active volcanic arc.

Off-fault dynamic tensile cracks form behind an earthquake rupture front with distinct orientation and spacing. These cracks explode the wall rock and create breccias, which we hypothesize will preserve a unique fingerprint of dynamic rupture. Identification of these characteristic breccias may enable a new tool for identifying paleoseismic slip surfaces in the rock record. Using previous experimental and theoretical predictions, we develop a field-based model of dynamic dilational breccia formation. Experimental studies find that secondary tensile fracture networks comprise closely spaced fractures at angles of 70–90° from a slip surface, as well as fractures that branch at angles of ∼ 30 ° from a primary mode I fracture. The Pofadder Shear Zone, in Namibia and South Africa, preserves breccias formed in the brittle–ductile transition zone displaying fracture patterns consistent with those described above. Fracture spacing is approximately two orders of magnitude less than predicted by quasi-static models. Breccias are clast-supported, monomict and can display an abrupt transition from fracture network crackle breccia to mosaic breccia textures. Brecciation occurs by the intersection of off-fault dynamic fractures and wall rock fabric; this is in contrast to previous models of fluid pressure gradient-driven failure “implosion breccias”. This mechanism tends to form many similar sized clasts with particle size distributions that may not display self-similarity; where self-similarity is observed the distributions have relatively low D-values of 1.47 ± 0.37 , similar to other studies of dynamic processes. We measure slip distances at dilational breccia stepovers, estimating earthquake magnitudes between M w 2.8–5.8 and associated rupture lengths of 0.023–3.3 km. The small calculated rupture dimensions, in combination with our geologic observations, suggest that some earthquakes nucleated within the quartz-plastic transitional zone and potentially record deep seismic slip.

The Santa Barbara Fold Belt (SBFB) is an area of active crustal shortening comprising younger east–west and older southeast-northwest oriented reverse faults and folds. Changes in channel position and stream incision are the result of active fold growth and uplift. Rates of incision range from 0.4 ± 0.1 m/ka to 1.2 ± 0.04 m/ka. Lateral stream diversion from fold and fault growth varies from 6.7 to 0.4 km. Minimum uplift of western Mission Ridge anticline is 0.8 ± 0.1 m/ka and minimum uplift on the Mesa fault is 0.3–0.4 m/ka. The hypothesis that east-to-west folds are younger is suggested by a cross-cutting relationship and is tested using geomorphic indices of active tectonics including: valley width to height ratios (Vf), mountain front sinuosity (Smf) and drainage densities (Dd). East-to-west trending structures have mean values of Vf, Smf, and Dd of 2.7, 1.2, and 2.2 km/km2, respectively, while southeast-to-northwest trending structures have mean values of 5.0, 1.5, and 3.7 km/km2, respectively. We present a new geomorphic tool, the stream diversion index, which uses diversion timing and distance to assess relative tectonic activity; these values range from 6 to 260 m/ka. All of these values support the hypothesis that the east-to-west folds are younger and more active. Clockwise rotation of the Western Transverse Ranges is probably the process that produced the two sets of structures. With rotation the older set that started out east-to-west eventually became northwest-to-southeast, and more difficult to maintain with the north-to-south contractional (shortening) associated with the Big Bend of the San Andreas fault 80 km to the north. The second set of younger structures formed with a more favorable (east-to-west) orientation to the shortening.

We show here that transtensional rifting along the eastern boundary of the Sierra Nevada microplate (Walker Lane rift) began by ca. 12 Ma in the central Sierra Nevada (USA), within the ancestral Cascades arc, triggering voluminous high-K intermediate volcanism (Stanislaus Group). Flood andesite (i.e., unusually large-volume effusive eruptions of intermediate composition) lavas erupted from fault-controlled fissures within a series of grabens that we refer to as the Sierra Crest graben-vent system. This graben-vent system includes the following. 1. The north-northwest–south-southeast Sierra Crest graben proper consists of a single 28-km-long, 8–10-km-wide full graben that is along the modern Sierra Nevada crest between Sonora Pass and Ebbetts Pass (largely in the Carson-Iceberg Wilderness). This contains fissure vents for the high-K intermediate lavas. 2. A series of north-northwest-south-southeast half-grabens on the western margin of the full graben, which progressively disrupted an ancient Nevadaplano paleochannel that contains the type section of Stanislaus Group (Red Peak–Bald Peak area). These Miocene half-grabens are as much as 15 km west of the modern Sierra Nevada crest, and vented high-K lavas from point sources. 3. Series of northeast-southwest grabens define a major transfer zone along the northeast side of the Sierra Crest graben. These extend as much as ∼30 km from the modern range crest down the modern Sierra Nevada range front, in a zone ∼30 km wide, and vented high-K lavas and tuffs of the Stanislaus Group from point sources. Range-front north-south and northeast-southwest faults to the south of that, along the southeast side of the Sierra Crest graben, did not vent volcanic rocks (although they ponded them); those will be described elsewhere. We present evidence for a dextral component of slip on the north-northwest–south-southeast normal faults, and a sinistral component of slip on the northeast-southwest normal faults. The onset of transtension immediately preceded the high-K volcanism (within the analytical error of 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dates), and triggered the deposition of a debris avalanche deposit with a preserved volume of ∼50 km 3 . The grabens are mainly filled with high-K lava flows, ponded to thicknesses of as much as 400 m; this effusive volcanism culminated in the development of the Little Walker caldera over a relatively small part of the field. Trachydacite outflow ignimbrites from the caldera also became ponded in the larger graben-vent complex, where they interfingered with high-K lavas vented there, and escaped the graben-vent complex on its west margin to flow westward down two paleochannels to the western foothills. The Sierra Crest graben-vent system is spectacularly well exposed at the perfect structural level for viewing the controls of synvolcanic faults on the siting and styles of feeders, vents, and graben fills under a transtensional strain regime in an arc volcanic field.