Search

Little is known about the production of ruby red copper stained glasses from the Medieval and Renaissance periods apart from the fact that the colour is due to the presence of small metallic copper nanoparticles and that tin, the most common reducing agent used in copper red glass production since the 19th century, is not present. In fact, very few workshops in Europe were able to make red glass in historical times, and they kept it secret, so very little is known about how it was obtained. These workshops exported the red glass throughout Europe. Recently, the presence of copper sulphide particles and the data obtained in the replication red glass following historical recipes suggested that sulphur might be the key ingredient in this process. Here, a collection of historical red glasses from these periods has been analysed using a combination of microanalytical techniques; Electron Microprobe (EM) and Field Emission and Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) to verify the chemical composition and nanostructure of the glasses, Synchrotron radiation micro-X-Ray Diffraction (micro-XRD) to establish the nature of the nanocrystalline precipitates, and S, Cu and Fe K-edge micro-X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (micro-XAS) to determine the speciation. The data obtained show that the oxidation of S2- into S6+ in the glass is responsible for the precipitation of copper nanoparticles. The development of a sulphide-silicate partition and the presence of Fe3+ in the melt give rise to the precipitation of the high-pressure tetragonal polymorph of chalcocite (Cu2S). Differences between the Medieval and Renaissance red glass are determined.

European glass beads were intensively used for trading in the colonies of Africa, Asia and the Americas from the 16th to the early 20th century. Although found in large amounts in colonial sites, our knowledge of their production and their use in Europe is very limited. In this presentation, we discuss seven new collections from cemeteries, houses, and castles in Rouen, Bordeaux, Brouage, La Rochelle, Moutier-Rozeilles, Montmorin and Courcoury, France. Dating from the 16th to the 19th century, these sites reflect the use of glass beads by French people in their daily life. The beads were studied with LA-ICP-MS and were compared with those found in production sites across Europe: Amsterdam, London, Fichtelgebirge, and Venise (Gnalic Shipwreck).

International audience; The Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus built between about 706 and 714/15 CE is the oldest surviving mosque that still preserves large parts of its original architecture and decoration. The origins of the mosaic tesserae have been the subject of debate for more than a thousand years. The earliest sources written two centuries after the construction of the edifice claim a Byzantine origin of both, the material as well as the craftsmen. Here we use the compositional analyses of nearly 1,000 glass tesserae to show that 65% of the samples (80% of the coloured tesserae) from the mosque have a consistent chemistry and, by inference, originate from a common geographical source. Comparison with chemical data of early Islamic glass groups conclusively identifies Egypt as the origin of these tesserae and demonstrates that they are coeval with the foundation of the mosque. Additionally, the compositional features of the gold leaf tesserae testify to the systematic recycling and reuse of older material. Our findings suggest that the manufacture and supply of glass tesserae for the Great Mosque was a direct commission from the highest echelons of government.

This paper discusses the process, prospects, and challenges of making bikini glass in Bida (Nupeland), central Nigeria. The Masagá glassmakers of Bida provide the ideal case study for investigating the production of bikini. Nineteenth-century Arab and European writings have described glassmaking in Nupeland; however, with the exception of the study carried out by Peter Robertshaw and his colleagues in 2009, there is no work that identifies the raw materials and formula used to produce bikini glass. Our recent ethnographic work at Bida provided the opportunities to collect raw glass, beads, and unfused raw material for bikini glass as well as vitrified furnace wall fragments for analysis. We present results of binocular observation and chemical compositional analysis conducted on the raw materials, glass products, and furnace remains to understand the mineralogical and chemical characteristics of various materials connected with the production of bikini. From the manufacture of glass to that of glass ornaments, bracelets, and beads, the documentation of the work of Masagá glassmakers provides new data for the history of glass and its techniques. This information is relevant for understanding glassworking in the past. The paper also addresses issues relating to migration, technology transfer, and culture contact between Nupeland and its neighbors in the Lower Niger region. It argues that the investigation of the production of bikini glass in Bida is essential for expanding our knowledge of the archaeology of glassmaking and glassworking in Sub-Saharan Africa and beyond.

Ce chapitre retrace l’histoire de l’emploi du plomb en tant que matière première de l’industrie verrière. Il débute en Égypte et en Mésopotamie au milieu du IIe millénaire avant notre ère, passe par l’Asie de l’Est et l’Asie du Sud au cours des premiers siècles avant et après notre ère pour revenir en Europe entre les IXe et XVIIIe siècles.

International audience

International audience

International audience; The glass ingots from the Late Bronze Age Uluburun shipwreck (ca. 1300 BCE) provide crucial insight into Late Bronze Age glass production and exchange in the Mediterranean. Almost all of the approximately 200 glass ingots on board the ship were sampled as well as five of the 30 Mycenaean glass relief beads. Here we report the full chemical compositional results for these samples, along with 49 strontium isotope analyses representing at least 48 separate glass ingots. We include as well 355 unpublished analyses of Late Bronze Age Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Levantine, and Aegean glasses; these represent a total of 222 different objects since many of the core-formed vessel fragments are polychrome and each color was analysed separately. The results suggest that the Uluburun glass ingots were produced in as few as 28 discrete production events or batches. The largest batch included at least 16 ingots representing 40 kg of glass with a chemical composition as perfectly uniform as could be determined by our LA-ICP-MS analyses. Cluster analysis and comparison of Ti/Cr and Li/Zr ratios indicate that all of the ingots are Egyptian glass. In addition, based on this new dataset we have identified the first Egyptian glasses to be found at Mesopotamian sites as well as several examples of Mesopotamian glass used to produce Egyptian objects. The Mycenaean glass relief beads on board the ship were also produced with Egyptian glass, although in this case more similar to glass from Amarna than to the Uluburun ingots. These results, coupled with our finding that glass almost identical to ingots found on the ship was used to produce several of the unprovenanced Mycenaean relief beads from museum collections, presents a picture of overall technological continuity combined with geographic flexibility at the end of the Amarna Period in Egypt.Glass ingots from Late Bronze Age Uluburun shipwreck all made from Egyptian glass.•Cluster Analysis and trace-element ratios to identify geographic source.•Ingots of high-quality glass produced in chemically identical batches.•Evidence for significant amounts of Mesopotamian glass in Amarna, Egypt, workshops.•First report of Egyptian glass at Mesopotamian sites although quantities limited.

International audience; The Chaves cave (Huesca, Spain) is located in the central Pre‐Pyrenean range in NE Iberia. It is a huge cave opening to the east, which was systematically excavated between 1975 and 2007. Several human occupations from the Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods were documented. Archaeological investigations had barely covered a tenth of the total area when they were abruptly interrupted by the destruction in 2007 of most of the archaeological sediments and all the preserved Neolithic levels that had not yet been excavated. While the most intensive prehistoric occupations of the cave were Neolithic, several components from the Upper Palaeolithic were also detected and excavated before 2007. The recovered lithic tools, as well as the radiocarbon dates, revealed that the Chaves cave was frequented by hunter–gatherer groups during the Upper Solutrean and the Upper Magdalenian. Lithic raw materials from the Palaeolithic levels are diverse, with several chert types identified. The recovered lithic set was subjected to micropaleontological, petrographic and geochemical analyses (energy‐dispersive X‐ray Fluorescence and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry). The results revealed several origins for the chert, not only from the southern Pyrenees but also from the northern versant, demonstrating that this mountain range was regularly crossed during the Upper Palaeolithic.

Between 2000 and 2005 alongside their Iranian colleagues, the team from the German Mining Museum examined the prehistoric copper-mining area located close to the village of Veshnaveh in the mountains of central Iran. Two mines, Chale Ghar 1 and 2, which had been hollowed out by copper-mining activities, had been filled with the water from melting snow. There objects were uncovered unrelated to prehistoric mining activities: among them were ceramics, as well as very well preserved animal bones, fruits and seeds, wooden vessels, as well as jewellery and personal ornaments. The assemblage and the way in which the objects had been disposed support the assumption that the mines had probably served as a natural sanctuary. Aided by a 14C examination of charcoal collected at the bottom of the depositional features, and by the discovery of an Umayyad coin, it is sensible to assume that the use of Chale Ghar 1 – outside mining activities– ran from c. 800 BC to the 8th century AD. The present study deals with the classification of the personal ornaments, their possible import and trade, the depositional practice and aspects of pre-Islamic religious acts and religious actors.

International audience; Die Rekonstruktion der Handelswege, über welche die Granate im Frühmittelalter nach Europa gelangten, belegt das Fortbestehen des Fernhandels nach dem Ende des weströmischen Reiches. Der frühmittelalterliche Granatschmuck aus Italien und das Vorhandensein von Edelsteinschleifereien sind wichtige Belege für das Verständnis der Dynamik dieses Handels, wurden aber systematisch übersehen. Die Spurenelementanalyse (LA-ICP-MS) von losen und eingelegten Granaten und Glaseinlagen aus Gräbern in der Lombardei des sechsten bis siebten Jahrhunderts identifizierte sowohl südasiatische und böhmische Granate als auch ägyptisches Glas. Diese Kombination zeigt, dass die Fernhandelsrouten, die über die Halbinsel und die Alpenpässe führten, eine Schlüsselrolle auf dem europäischen Granatmarkt spielten. Diese Ergebnisse erweitern das derzeitige Modell des Granathandels im Mittelmeerraum erheblich und werfen neues Licht auf den weltoffenen Charakter der Eliten, die während der Völkerwanderungszeit in Italien aufkamen. Translation by the authors; The reconstruction of the trade routes along which garnets reached Europe in the early Middle Ages demonstrates the persistence of long-distance trade after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Early medieval garnet jewellery from Italy and the presence of lapidary workshops are important evidence for understanding the dynamics of this commerce but are systematically overlooked. Chemical trace-element analysis (LA-ICP-MS) of loose and inset garnets and glass inlays from burials in sixth–seventh-century Lombardy has identified South Asian and Bohemian garnets together with Egyptian glass. This combination shows that the long-distance trade routes crossing the Peninsula and the Alpine passes played a key role in the European market for garnets, significantly modifying the current model of the Mediterranean garnet trade and shedding new light on the character of the elites who emerged in Italy during the Migration period.; L'étude des routes commerciales par lesquelles les grenats atteignent l'Europe au haut Moyen Âge met en évidence la persistance de ce commerce à longue distance après la chute de l'Empire romain d'Occident. Les bijoux en grenat du haut Moyen Âge découvert en Italie et la présence d'ateliers lapidaires sont des éléments cruciaux, qui ont été longtemps négligées, pour comprendre la dynamique de ces échanges. L'analyse des éléments traces (LA-ICP-MS) des grenats et des incrustations en verre retrouvés dans des sépultures lombardes, datées du sixième au septième siècle de notre ère, a révélé la présence de verre égyptien et de grenats provenant d'Asie du Sud et de Bohème. Cette combinaison met en évidence le rôle clé des routes du commerce à longue distance traversant la péninsule et les cols alpins dans le marché européen des grenats. Ces résultats modifient considérablement le modèle actuel du commerce méditerranéen de ces gemmes et apporte un nouvel éclairage sur le caractère cosmopolite des élites qui ont émergé en Italie au cours de la période de migration. Translation by the authors

Pour les périodes anciennes, l’affinage de l’argent se pratique classiquement par coupellation. Il existe cependant d’autres procédés permettant d’obtenir un argent pur. En se basant sur une recette du début du XVIe siècle, nous montrons grâce à l’expérimentation archéologique la pertinence d’un traitement d’un alliage argentifère par ajout de verre et de savon. L’approche archéométrique sur les argents produits comme sur les verres permettent de qualifier les différentes productions expérimentales. Nous montrons également la filiation de ce procédé depuis le Xe siècle jusqu’au XXe siècle. For the ancient periods, the refining of silver is classically practiced by cupellation. However, there are other processes that can be used to obtain fine silver. Based on a recipe from the beginning of the 16th century, we show through archaeological experimentation the relevance of treating a silver alloy by adding glass and soap. The archaeometric approach on the refining silvers as well as on the glasses allows to qualify the different experimental productions. We also show the filiation of this process from the 10th century to the 20th century.

International audience; The excavation, in situ and in laboratory, of three Middle Bronze Age hoards discovered in 2011 in the alluvial plain of the Oise at Ribécourt-Dreslincourt (Oise) has provided the opportunity to reflect on these particular Bronze Age sites.The three hoards (F28, F29 and F36) were buried at one end of a small triangular area. Each hoard is located near a post-hole. This disposition has never been observed in France until now. The hoards are unusual as they include objects made from materials such as gold, amber, glass and bronze and some of the objects themselves are unique. They include a hammer with a twisted decoration, a pin with two large discs and a gold disc. The Baltic origin of the amber from hoard F36 is of particular interest (a prestigious material) as well as the nodules of raw material. The variety of objects should be underlined as they fall into four functional categories: weaponry (two daggers), tools (two axes and a hammer), ornaments (eleven bracelets, a pin, three torques, twenty-seven elements strung on a probable necklace) and the gold disc (part of a possible ritual object). Some of these objects appear to have had little or no use, while others are clearly used. Also of note is the presence of miscasts.The disposition of the objects shows rarely observed gestures. In the case of hoard F29, a single metal object is buried, an axe placed vertically, cutting edge upwards. For hoard F28, the stringing of six bracelets on the handle of a dagger stuck vertically into the base of the feature is noteworthy. Concerning hoard F36, the most significant object arrangement is a compact pile of artefacts stacked in the middle of the pit, including a bent pin (36.38) enclosing four bracelets (36.34 to 37) as well as a twisted torque (36.33), itself bent and broken into three fragments. We have also observed pre-depositional manipulations. The state of the objects at the time of their burial is variable: all are complete, but five were manipulated before being deposited. In addition to the cluster of objects described above, the dagger 36.26, which is missing the two rivets that hold its handle, may have been dismantled before burial, while the gold disc, a bipartite object, is missing its bronze support.Hoards F28 and 36A have a particular disposition with an intermediate layer devoid of objects. This could be due to the presence of organic material that has now disappeared or because the pit containing the hoard was reopened at a later date in order to deposit a new set of objects on top. The addition of items could have been planned from the outset as with the multi-phased hoards of Grunty Fen (Cambridgeshire, UK) and Spaxton (Somerset, UK). Objects from the Ribécourt-Dreslincourt hoards, suggest that the three are contemporary, which does not imply that the deposits were simultaneous. The timeline could extend over a century according to the typochronological coherence of the objects.The Ribécourt-Dreslincourt hoards are attributed to the Atlantic Middle Bronze Age 2. The annular ornaments are quite characteristic of this period, as are the palstaves. Although the typology of the other objects is less obvious, it does not contradict this chronological positioning. Radiocarbon analysis also confirms this date (1442-1302 cal BC). The hoards belong to the rather rare category in the Atlantic area of multi-type hoards that bring together different objects, as is the case for the Villers-sur-Authie (Somme) hoard, now disappeared, or the Wylye (Wiltshire, UK) and Hollingbury Hill (Sussex, UK) hoards. The typology of the annular ornaments from the Ribécourt-Dreslincourt hoards shows that the objects come from different areas, the south-east of England, the Armorican Massif, as well as the lower and middle basins of the Seine and Somme rivers. We can also draw a direct parallel between the 36.36 bracelet and anklets from graves in the Lüneburg region (Lower Saxony), or from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. Comparisons for the pin lead us to southern Germany and Switzerland, while the gold disc is similar to objects from the Nordic Bronze Age area (Denmark, northern Germany and the British Isles). The hoards’ composition sheds light on the movement of individuals, objects and ideas between the south of England and the north of France, but also on relations with other more distant regions (Germany, Switzerland), whereas the amber and glass refer to the Baltic and the Near East regions.To conclude, the fact that posts originally marked the Ribécourt-Dreslincourt hoards shows an underlying intention to make these hoards visible: they were not buried to be concealed. This ostentatious dimension goes hand in hand with the intention of sacralising particular places where interventions subsequent to the deposits would have taken place.; La découverte de trois dépôts en 2011 dans la plaine alluviale de l’Oise à Ribécourt-Dreslincourt (Oise), lors d’un diagnostic suivi d’une fouille, a permis d’apporter un nouvel éclairage sur la pratique des dépôts non funéraires. Enfouis à 5 m environ les uns des autres, l’un (F29) est constitué d’un objet unique, à savoir une hache enfouie verticalement, tandis que les deux autres (F28 et F36) ont livré à la fois des parures, des outils et des armes. Dans deux des dépôts (F28 et F29), tous les objets sont en alliage cuivreux, mais le troisième a aussi livré de l’ambre, de l’or et du verre. Tous trois sont attribués au Bronze moyen atlantique 2 d’après la typologie des objets et une datation radiocarbone.L’état d’enfouissement des objets est variable : tous sont complets, mais cinq ont été intentionnellement manipulés avant d’être déposés. Certains semblent avoir peu ou pas servi, tandis que d’autres ont clairement été portés ou employés. On notera aussi la présence étonnante de ratés de fonte. Ces dépôts matérialisent la circulation d’individus, d’objets et d’idées entre le sud de l’Angleterre et le nord de la France, mais aussi avec d’autres régions plus éloignées (Allemagne, Suisse, Baltique, Proche-Orient).Fait particulièrement original et rarement observé jusqu’à présent : un poteau était associé à chacun des dépôts. Érigés comme des marqueurs spatiaux, ils indiquent que ces dépôts n’ont pas nécessairement tous été enterrés pour être cachés et qu’il a pu exister une volonté de les mettre en évidence.Dans deux des trois dépôts (F28 et F36) se distinguent deux lots d’objets séparés par une couche de sédiments de plusieurs centimètres vide de mobilier. Des matériaux organiques pouvaient s’y trouver initialement (textiles, fourrures…). Néanmoins, combiné à la présence des poteaux, ce niveau stérile soulève la question de réouvertures des dépôts pour les compléter, y prélever des objets ou intervenir sur ces derniers. On parlerait alors de dépôts polyphasés, qui pourraient dès leur origine être prévus pour être rouverts. Ces observations viennent alimenter les discussions autour de cette pratique des dépôts non funéraires et participent à en renouveler la lecture.

International audience; Recent archaeological research has highlighted the potential role of mobile pastoral groups in the diffusion of raw materials and technological innovations between the southern Caucasus and north‐western Iran from the Neolithic onwards. Two successive projects, PAST‐OBS and SCOPE, were designed to explore this hypothesis through the study of obsidian consumption patterns from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age using a flexible analytical strategy that considerably extends the scale of obsidian studies in these regions. By focusing on the exploitation of obsidian at multiple levels—local, regional and interregional—we hope to unravel the complexity of the obsidian networks under study. The aim of this paper is to present (1) a reassessment of the work so far carried out by previous obsidian studies, with a view to homogenizing and to clarifying the nomenclature in use; and (2) an introduction to the PAST‐OBS and SCOPE projects in order to initiate a discussion of our preliminary results.

International audience; During the excavations of early magnate buildings, Pre-Christian Cult Sites and early trade centre, several fragments from windows glass have been found. Until recently, fragments of window glass from Pre- Christian Sites were most often regarded as modern glass, or as a kind of "pollution" in the excavated fields. Our research and analyses show that windows with glass were used in pagan temples and in the estates of the elite already in the early Viking ages. Although glass windows were not common in Viking Age Scandinavia, our research shows that glass window may have existed in royal estates in the Viking Age in Pre-Christian Cult places and temple buildings. It is interesting that glass window appears in Scandinavia long time before they were believed to exist, and especially in areas where glass windows was not used in buildings until recently. The presence of window glass in early magnate residences, on Pre-Christian cult Sites and at early Viking trade centre seems to draw an interesting pattern. Most probably glass windows in Pre-Christian Scandinavia, were used in the same way as in early Frankish and Anglo-Saxon churches. We present here some results on window glass originating from: - Pre-Christian Cult Sites: Tissø and Strøby Toftegård on Sealand, Sorte Muld on the island of Bornholm, and from Uppåkra in Scania, - as well as Viking Age sites: Haithabu in northern Germany, Kaupang in Norway, and Birka in Sweden, These window glasses were all analysed using Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the Centre Ernest-Babelon, (CNRS, Orléans, France). Our results show the presence among our corpus of three main type of glass compositions: natron glass, woodash glass and woodash lime glass. If natron glass illustrates the re-use of ancient antique windows, the presence of woodash and woodash lime glass enabled us to put new light on the use of early glass windows in Southern Scandinavia.

International audience

International audience

This file give access to all the data collected on obsidian for the site of Mentesh Tepe

International audience; The Fuente del Trucho Cave (Asque‐Colungo, Huesca, Spain) is located in the central Pre‐Pyrenean range in NE Iberia, in the Arpán ravine, a tributary of the Vero River. The mouth of the cave is 22 m wide and it is oriented to the SE. The entrance gives access to a 24 m deep hall. Palaeolithic paintings were discovered in the cave in 1978. The Fuente del Trucho art comprises two sectors, the external with some engraved motifs and the internal featuring more than 100 painted motifs distributed in 21 panels. Archaeological works have been undertaken since 1979, identifying several human occupations from the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.This paper presents results obtained after the analysis of lithic raw materials. The analyses have been done using the classical archaeopetrological approach, which comprises textural, micropalaeontological and petrographical analyses, combined with the application of geochemical methods, using Energy‐dispersive X‐ray Fluorescence (ED‐XRF) and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA‐ICP‐MS). The results show that chert and quartzites were the most commonly used rocks. Different types and origins of chert have been identified, demonstrating the existence of a wide mobility for lithic raw material procurement along all the Palaeolithic occupations.

International audience

The production of natron glass started at the beginning of the first millennium BCE and prevailed in the Mediterranean world for almost two thousand years. This production seems to cease progressively from the end of the eighth century CE onwards, with a different timing based on the region (e.g. Syria, Egypt). A recent study of Islamic glass weights and stamps, which provide a fairly continuous chronology of glass compositions from the reign of Abd al-Malik (685–705 CE) to the reign of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim (996–1020 CE), shows that natron glass was produced in Egypt at least until the middle of the ninth century. Thus, in the Mediterranean world, a radical change is observed in glass recipes between the end of the eighth century and the tenth century CE resulting in the systematic use of soda plant ashes instead of natron. This recipe was then adopted all around the Mediterranean and became predominant in that area by the end of the twelfth century.

International audience

International audience; This contribution presents the first comprehensive survey of the protohistoric glasses found on the Altopiano dei Sette Comuni Vicentini in the sites of Monte Corgnon (Lusiana) and Bostel (Rotzo) during the excavations directed by Armando De Guio. Starting from the history of the studies, the work offers insights into the typo-chronological, stratigraphic, topographical and functional aspects of the finds considered. Also, the paper proposes and briefly discusses the preliminary results of the archaeometric analysis of the major, minor and trace elements carried out by LA-ICP-MS, as a means for understanding the raw materials, the coloring/ opacification technologies and the origin of the base glass.

Situé sur le causse du Larzac, le site de Soulages illustre, pour la première fois dans ce secteur de moyenne montagne, une occupation rurale qui se développe du vie siècle au ixe siècle. Les vestiges sont organisés dans un espace qui regroupe l’ensemble des lieux de vie, mêlés aux sépultures des habitants. Au sein de cet espace, les bâtiments sont répartis par fonction : les annexes sont regroupées dans des secteurs entourés par une palissade, la maison principale est isolée en hauteur. Au-delà de la localisation des constructions, l’analyse des techniques de construction et des matériaux mis en œuvre permet également de distinguer la maison d’habitation principale des bâtiments annexes avec l’emploi de la pierre, pour la première, et l’utilisation de structures porteuses en bois et murs en terre crue principalement, pour les seconds. Parmi les inhumations, les enfants décédés en bas âge sont surreprésentés. Ce type d’occupation livre de rares artefacts documentant la vie d’une communauté installée ex nihilo. Located on the plateau of Larzac, the site of Soulages testify, for the first time in this area of medium mountains, a rural settlement which developed from the 6th to the 9th century. The remains are organised in a space that groups together all the places where people lived, mixed with the burials of the inhabitants. Within this space, the buildings are divided by function: the service buildings are gathered in areas surrounded by a palisade, the main house is secluded in height. In addition to the situation of the buildings, the analysis of the construction techniques and materials also makes it possible to distinguish the main dwelling house from the functionnal buildings, with the use of stone for the former and the use of wooden load-bearing structures and earthen walls mainly for the latter. Among burials, young children are over-represented. This kind of settlement yields few material remains documenting the life of a community settled ex nihilo. Soulages ist eine ländliche Siedlung, die sich vom 6. bis zum 9. Jh. auf der Kalksteinhochfläche des Larzac entwickelt hat und als solche der erste in dieser Mittelgebirge-Gegend nachgewiesene Fall. Ihre Spuren strukturieren einen Raum, in welchem nicht nur alle Wohn- und Arbeitsbereiche, sondern auch die Gräber der Einwohner zu finden sind. Innerhalb dieses Raumes verteilen sich die Bauten nach ihrer Funktion : die Nebengebäude liegen in eingezäunten Bereichen, während das Haupthaus in höherer Lage allein steht. Darüber hinaus kann das Hauptwohnhaus von den Nebengebäuden dadurch unterschieden werden, dass Ersteres aus Stein erbaut ist, während Letztere meist eine Tragkonstruktion aus Holz mit Lehmwänden aufweisen. Unter den Bestattungen sind kleine Kinder überdurchschnittlich oft vertreten. Eine solche Siedlung liefert nur wenige Artefakte, die die Lebensweise einer Gemeinschaft dokumentieren, die diesen Ort neu erschlossen hat.

The materials, painting techniques and conservation state of the enamelled stain glass of the Catalan Modernist workshops operating in Barcelona are studied. It is known for its creativity and artistic value where textured, flashed, coloured and enamelled glasses concur. In the late 19th century, Catalan workshops used a new type of ready-to-be-used enamels (lead-zinc borosilicate glass) incorporating pigment particles and colourants. Although humidity, pollutants and solar irradiation are the main causes of corrosion, the microstructure of the enamels plays a role- Enamels that contain large particles close to the surface appear more corroded than those that are fully amorphous. Lixiviation of lead, boron and zinc produced a hydrated layered silica rich fragile glass and the subsequent precipitation of lead, sodium and calcium compounds on the surface, cracks around particles and inside the bubbles decrease the chemical and mechanical stability. The practices of some workshops produced enamels with reduced stability.

International audience