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Inappropriate speed choice increases crash risk. Emerging technologies, such as in-vehicle systems, can provide real-time and post-drive feedback to alert or educate drivers of their unsafe speed choices. Financial incentives, such as insurance reductions, can also be integrated with feedback. Although previous research supports the benefits of these approaches, research is limited in establishing their relative effectiveness and their long-term impact on speed limit compliance. A naturalistic driving study with 58 participants was conducted to investigate the effects of post-drive feedback versus financial incentives, both provided in conjunction with real-time feedback, on mitigating speeding behaviors. The study included a four-week long baseline data collection period (no feedback), a ten-week intervention period examining three feedback types in a between subjects design (real-time only; real-time and financial incentives; and real-time and post-drive feedback), and a two-week post-intervention period (feedback removed). Both real-time feedback alone and in conjunction with financial incentives were effective in raising speed limit compliance, but the effects did not sustain after the removal of feedback/incentives. Post-drive feedback, which was provided in the vehicle after a trip and as aggregated feedback on a website, does not appear to provide any benefits toward speed limit compliance; potential factors, including (voluntary) access frequency of post-drive feedback website, are discussed. Future research should continue to explore the feedback/incentive design space—carefully considering individual differences in driver characteristics and motivations—for supporting speed limit compliance and other risky driving behaviors.

PurposeThis study aims to examine the effect of experience abroad, academic success and university reputation on students' employability in the Lebanese labor market.Design/methodology/approachThe study uses a between-subject design to identify whether academic success, university reputation and experience abroad have an impact on how potential recruiters (i.e. employers) are perceiving student employability. The study uses 16 fictitious applications of business graduates, which differed in grade-point average, university reputation and experience abroad, rated by 784 Lebanese professionals.FindingsThe results suggest that high-performing students with experience abroad and high-performing students from a reputable university are perceived to be more employable. For low-performing students, having completed an experience abroad results in a lower reward in terms of employability.Research limitations/implicationsThe present study offers an analysis of students' employability through employers' lens; it offers insights for students on how to be perceived as more employable in a context where competition among future workers is fierce.Practical implicationsThe results of this research provide a roadmap for graduates for enhancing their employability in Lebanese markets and offer actionable insights to employers.Originality/valueThe most original contribution of this study is the analysis of university reputation impact on the likelihood of receiving positive feedback during the evaluation process. The impact of two Lebanese universities, one ranked in the QS ranking and one not, was investigated.

Several philosophers and psychologists have argued that evidence of moral framing effects shows that many of our moral judgments are unreliable. However, all previous empirical work on moral framing effects has used between-subject experimental designs. We argue that between-subject designs alone do not allow us to accurately estimate the extent of moral framing effects or to properly evaluate the case from framing effects against the reliability of our moral judgments. To do better, we report results of our new within-subject study on four types of moral framing effects, and we discuss the implications of our findings for the relia­bility of moral judgments. Overall, our results strengthen the evidence from moral framing effects against the reliability of some of our moral judgments.

When pristine testing conditions are used, an eyewitness's high-confidence identification from a lineup can be a reliable predictor of their identification accuracy (Wixted & Wells, 2017). Further, Grabman, Dobolyi, Berelovich, and Dodson (2019) found that high-confidence identifications are more predictive of accuracy for individuals with stronger than weaker face recognition ability. We extend this research by investigating why strong face recognizers make more informative confidence judgments and fewer high-confidence errors through the framework of two different accounts: the optimality account (Deffenbacher, 1980) and the decision processes account (e.g., Kruger & Dunning, 1999). The optimality account holds that differences in the predictive value of confidence ratings made by strong versus weak face recognizers are a result of differences in the quality of their memory representations for faces, indicating that confidence-accuracy calibration would be equated between these two groups when overall accuracy is equated, whereas the decision processes account attributes differences in calibration to strong face recognizers' superior metacognitive skills, which allow them to better evaluate their performance in the domain of face recognition. Therefore, to distinguish between these accounts, we manipulated exposure and retention interval to create conditions that produced comparable levels of identification accuracy between stronger and weaker face recognizers, and then examined their confidence-accuracy calibration. The decision processes account was supported, as differences in calibration between stronger and weaker face recognizers persisted even when overall identification accuracy was equated. Stronger face recognizers are better able to regulate their use of the confidence scale points with changes in identification accuracy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Background This study examines people's ability to fake their reported health behavior and explores the magnitude of such response distortion concerning faking of preventive health behavior and health risk behavior. As health behavior is a sensitive topic, people usually prefer privacy about it or they wish to create a better image of themselves (Fekken et al., 2012; Levy et al., 2018). Nevertheless, health behavior is often assessed by self-report questionnaires that are prone to faking. Therefore, it is important to examine the possible impact of such faking. Methods To replicate the findings and test their robustness, two study designs were realized. In the within-subjects-design, 142 participants repeatedly answered a health behavior questionnaire with an instruction to answer honestly, fake good, and fake bad. In the between-subjects design, 128 participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups that filled out the health behavior questionnaire with only one of the three instructions. Results Both studies showed that successful faking of self-reported preventive and health risk behavior was possible. The magnitude of such faking effects was very large in the within-subjects design and somewhat smaller in the between-subjects design. Conclusion Even though each design has its inherent merits and problems, caution is indicated regarding faking effects.

“This post is sponsored”. The interplay between sponsorship disclosure position, its wording, and brand prominence in blogs Research has repeatedly shown that disclosures in sponsored content activate people’s persuasion knowledge and consequently impact brand recall and brand attitude. However, prior research did not show clear effects of the wording and positioning of disclosures. Remarkably little research has been conducted to examine the interaction of both disclosure characteristics systematically. Furthermore, while brand prominence could well cause variations in the effects of disclosures, little attention has been paid to the role of brand prominence in sponsored content. The current study therefore aimed to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms behind the effects of sponsorship disclosure position, its wording, and brand prominence in blogs on readers’ processing. An online experiment using a 2 (disclosure wording: explicit / implicit) by 2 (disclosure position: beginning / end) by 2 (brand prominence: high / low) between subjects design (n = 274) revealed an implicit disclosure at the beginning of the blog enhances conceptual persuasion knowledge more compared to positioning at the end of a blog, while the opposite was found for explicit disclosures. These interaction effects of sponsorship disclosure wording and position indirectly enhance brand recall without being evaluated negatively by readers, but only if the content’s brand prominence was low. The implications of these findings for research on sponsorship disclosure are discussed.

Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication., Teacher-assigned grades provide important information that is used by universities and colleges to make admission decisions and by employers to make hiring decisions. Besides grades, the results of standardized achievement tests are frequently used for student selection and allocation. However, correlations between the two achievement measures are far from perfect, and researchers have argued that this discrepancy can be at least partially attributed to norm-referenced grading, which is based on the composition of performance in a class. In this study, we investigated the results of a curricular intensification reform, which introduced changes in the distribution of student performance by making enrollment in certain courses mandatory. We investigated whether the reform resulted in changes in the relationship between standardized achievement-test results and teacher-assigned grades. We analyzed cohort control design data from two large representative samples of students from two German states (Baden-Württemberg: N = 5,574; Thuringia: N = 2,202) before and after the reform. Results indicated that students who received a certain grade before the reform (e.g., a grade of A, B, C, or D) differed in their standardized test performance from students who received the same grade after the reform. Furthermore, in math, course-level-specific reform effects on the association between grades and standardized test performance were found to vary between groups of students receiving good and poor grades. Implications for educational policy and school reforms and suggestions for grading are discussed.

Positive contact between members of different groups reduces prejudice and increases cooperation, findings known as intergroup contact effects. Yet in real-world settings not only positive, but also negative intergroup contact occurs, which have opposing effects. To date little is known about whether and how an individual's valenced history of intergroup contact influences contact effects and how this dynamic change happens during specific instances of intergroup contact. A pilot study examined the psychological impact of a novel paradigm to assess intergroup contact using a behavioral game. We then conducted two studies, which allowed us to observe a sequence of up to 23 in- and outgroup interactions and their behavioral outcomes in a continuous prisoner's dilemma behavioral game (N = 116, 2,668 interactions; N = 89, 1,513 interactions). As expected, participants showed a clear ingroup bias in expectations and cooperation. Furthermore, the quality of contact history moderated contact effects. Specifically, intergroup contact following a positive history of intergroup contact had a stronger effect on intergroup expectations than contact following a negative history thereof. Findings are discussed in view of the importance of considering the valenced history of intergroup contact, as well as new research questions on intergroup contact that can be addressed with this novel contact paradigm. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Previous research has demonstrated a 'seductive allure' of technical or reductive language such that bad (e.g., circular) explanations are judged better when irrelevant technical terms are included. We aimed to explore if such an effect was observable in relation to a covid-19 vaccinations and if this subsequently affected behavioural intentions to take up a covid-19 vaccine. Using a between subjects design we presented participants (N = 996) with one of four possible types of vignette that explained how covid-19 vaccination and herd immunity works. The explanations varied along two factors: (1) Quality, explanations were either good or bad (i.e., tautological); (2) Language, explanations either contained unnecessary technical language or did not. We measured participants' evaluation of the explanations and intentions to vaccinate. We demonstrate a 'seductive allure' effect of technical language on bad vaccine explanations. However, an opposite 'repellent disdain' effect occurred for good explanations which were rated worse when they contained technical language. Moreover, we show that evaluations of explanations influence intentions to vaccinate. We suggest that misinformation that includes technical language could be more detrimental to vaccination rates. Importantly, however, clear explanatory public health information that omits technical language will be more effective in increasing intentions to vaccinate.

A large number of studies has emerged on the environmental impacts of diets, with most studies concluding that a diet rich in plant-based foods, that are low in salt, sugar, and fat, and score high in nutritional values, confers both improved health and environmental benefits. Currently, new interventions are being implemented to improve people’s eating behavior, because most people overconsume unhealthy snacks, containing high proportions of salt, sugar and fat. The purpose of the current pilot study was to investigate the effects of the Nutri-Score label on three different snack bars on consumers’ attitudes, taste perception, and purchase intention towards these food products. An experimental study was conducted with a between subject design (food packaging with Nutri-Score label versus without) among 192 participants (Mage 31.7 years, SD 14.3 years; 63% female). Results showed that there were no effects found for the effect of the Nutri- Score label on consumers’ attitudes, taste perception and purchase intention. Bayesian analyses support the conclusion that the null hypothesis is accepted. These findings show that integrating the Nutri-Score label on food packages did not modify cognitive responses of consumers towards these food products. Changing consumption behaviors is challenging and more empirical and theoretical understanding is needed.

Background: The last few decades people have increasingly started to use technological tools for health and activity monitoring, such as tracking apps and wearables. The main assumption is that these tools are effective in reinforcing self-empowerment because they support better-informed lifestyle decision-making. However, experimental research assessing the effectiveness of the technological tools on such psychological outcomes is limited.Methods and Design: Three studies will be conducted. First, we will perform a systematic review to examine the experimental evidence on the effects of self-tracking apps on psychological outcome measurements. Second, we will conduct a longitudinal field experiment with a between subject design. Participants (N = 150) begin a 50-day exercise program, either with or without the aid of the self-tracking app Strava. Among those who use Strava, we vary between those who use all features and those who use a limited set of features. Participants complete questionnaires at baseline, at 10, 25, and 50 days, and provide details on what information has been tracked via the platform. Third, a subset of participants is interviewed to acquire additional qualitative data. The study will provide a rich set of data, enabling triangulation, and contextualization of the findings.Discussion: People increasingly engage in self-tracking whereby they use technological tools for health and activity monitoring, although the effects are still unknown. Considering the mixed results of the existing evidence, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions, showing more research is needed to develop a comprehensive understanding.Trial registration: Netherlands Trial registration: NL9402, received on 20 April 2021; https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/9402.

Pedagogical agents are theorized to increase humans’ effort to understand computerized instructions. Despite the pedagogical promises of VR, the usefulness of pedagogical agents in VR remains uncertain. Based on this gap, and inspired by global efforts to advance remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, we conducted an educational VR study in-the-wild (N = 161). With a 2 × 2 + 1 between subjects design, we manipulated the appearance and behavior of a virtual museum guide in an exhibition about viruses. Factual and conceptual learning outcomes as well as subjective learning experience measures were collected. In general, participants reported high enjoyment and had significant knowledge acquisition. We found that the agent’s appearance and behavior impacted factual knowledge gain. We also report an interaction effect between behavioral and visual realism for conceptual knowledge gain. Our findings nuance classical multimedia learning theories and provide directions for employing agents in immersive learning environments.

The 2I/E model is an extension of Marsh’s (1986) classical internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model. Whereas the classical I/E model describes the formation of academic self-concept by the joint operation of social (external) and dimensional (internal) comparisons, the 2I/E model integrates temporal comparisons as an additional internal comparison process. In the 2I/E model, paths from achievement levels to self-concepts in the same subject are assumed to represent social comparisons, paths from achievement levels to self-concepts in another subject are assumed to represent dimensional comparisons, and paths from achievement changes to self-concepts in the same subject are assumed to represent temporal comparisons. The present research validated the 2I/E model in six empirical studies with a total of more than 20,000 students. Generally, there were strong positive social comparison paths, moderate negative dimensional comparison paths, and small positive temporal comparison paths. Furthermore, the relations of the 2I/E model were replicated with both grades and standardized test scores as achievement indicators (Study 1 and Study 2). Dimensional comparison effects were stronger between dissimilar subjects, like math and German, than between similar subjects, like German and English (Study 2 and Study 3). Also, the relations of the 2I/E model were shown when prior self-concepts were controlled for (Study 4). Overall, the 2I/E model seems to have the potential to enrich future theory and research on self-concept formation and comparison processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)

We test the turnout predictions of the standard two-party, private value, costly voting model through a large-scale, real effort experiment. We do this by recruiting 1,200 participants through Amazon's Mechanical Turk and employing a 2 x 2 between subjects design encompassing small (N=30) and large (N=300) elections, as well as close and one-sided elections. We find partial evidence of selfish instrumental voting. Participants with a higher opportunity cost are less likely to vote (cost effect); turnout rate decreases as the electorate size increases (size effect) in one-sided elections and increases the closer the election is (competition effect) in large elections. Contrary to the theoretical predictions, in large one-sided elections the majority turns out to vote at a higher rate than the minority. We propose an alternative theory assuming that voters obtain a small non-monetary utility if they vote and their party wins.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate potential differences in experienced and inexperienced workers’ interpretations of recruitment ads. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses a between subjects design to compare responses to recruitment advertisements. The advertisements varied in terms of compensation information. Findings Work experience did not alter perceptions of organizational culture but it did affect levels of organizational attraction. The implication is that all workers interpret recruitment advertisements in a similar manner but more experienced workers prefer different work environments than less experienced workers. Research limitations/implications The results generally support the use of student populations or inexperienced workers in recruitment research. The study was limited to perceptions of pay statements. Other forms of recruitment information needs to be investigated. Practical implications Companies seeking to recruit experienced workers need to be attentive to how those workers will view the company’s culture based on information in their recruitment advertisements. Originality/value This study is one of a very limited number of organizational attraction studies comparing experienced and inexperienced workers. It is important because it helps clarify the underlying mechanisms impacting organizational attraction based on work experience.

What do patients prefer in their psychotherapy? Do laypersons and mental health professionals (as patients) want the same, or different, things? The authors systematically examined patients' psychotherapy preferences and quantitatively compared two samples of laypersons (N = 228, 1,305) with one sample of mental health professionals (N = 615) on the four dimensions of the Cooper-Norcross Inventory of Preferences: Therapist Directiveness Versus Client Directiveness, Emotional Intensity Versus Emotional Reserve, Past Orientation Versus Present Orientation, and Warm Support Versus Focused Challenge. On average, laypersons wanted therapist directiveness and emotional intensity. Robust differences were found between laypersons' and professionals' preferences on these two dimensions: Mental health professionals wanted less therapist directiveness than did laypersons (gs = 0.92 and 1.43 between groups) and more emotional intensity (gs = 0.49 and 1.33). Women also wanted more warm support than men (gs = 0.40 and 0.57). These findings suggest that psychotherapists should be mindful of their own treatment preferences and ensure that these are not inappropriately generalized to patients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The main purpose of this study was to analyse the effect of perceived intergroup competition on majority adolescents’ behavioural intentions toward two relevant immigrant groups in the Spanish context, Ecuadorians and Moroccans. We proposed an integrative path model in which perceived intergroup competition led to perception of outgroup threat, which in turn affected warmth stereotypes (morality and sociability). Perceived warmth further fostered positive and negative emotions, which in turn predicted facilitative and harmful interpersonal behavioural tendencies. Following a between subject design, participants (N = 231, Mage = 15.39, SD = 1.09) evaluated Moroccans (n = 114) or Ecuadorians (n = 117) on the examined variables. Results indicate that Ecuadorians were perceived as more moral and sociable and elicited less negative emotions than Moroccans. The model had a good fit for both groups. Perceived intergroup competition predicted perceived outgroup threat which, in turn, fostered perceived morality and sociability. Only perceived morality predicted both positive and negative emotions, whereas sociability elicited only positive emotions. Finally, facilitation intentions were predicted by both positive and negative emotions, while harm intentions were triggered only by negative ones. Results highlight the distinctive role of morality for intergroup relations during adolescence and extend previous literature regarding perceived intergroup competition, stereotype content, emotions and perceived outgroup threat.

Purpose Past research suggests that heavy media multitaskers (HMMs) perform worse on tasks that require executive control, compared to light media multitaskers (LMMs). This paper aims to investigate whether individual differences between HMMs and LMMs make them respond differently to advertising in a media multitasking context and whether this stems from differences in the ability versus the motivation to regulate one’s attention. This is investigated by manipulating participants’ autonomy over attention allocation. Design/methodology/approach For the first study (n = 85), a between subjects design with three conditions was used: sequential, multitasking under low autonomy over attention allocation and multitasking under high autonomy over attention allocation. This study investigated the inhibitory control of HMMs vs LMMs in a very controlled multitasking setting. The second study (n = 91) replicated the design of study one in a more naturalistic media multitasking setting and investigated the driving role of motivation vs ability for cognitive load differences between HMMs and LMMs and the consequent impact on advertising effectiveness. Findings Study I suggests that HMMs perform worse on a response inhibition task than LMMs after multitasking freely (in which case motivation to regulate attention determines the process), but not after their attention was guided externally by the experimenter (in which case their motivation could no longer determine the process). Study II argues that when motivation to switch attention is at play, cognitive load differences occur between HMMs and LMMs. This study additionally reveals that under these circumstances, HMMs are more persuaded by advertisements (report higher purchase intentions) compared to LMMs, while no differences appear when only ability is at play. Research limitations/implications Executive control exists of different components (Miyake et al., 2000). The current study only focused on the impact of media multitasking frequency on response inhibition, but it would be interesting for future research to investigate whether media multitasking frequency equally affects the other sub-dimensions. Additionally, the impairment of response inhibition has been shown to predict a large number of other behavioral and impulse-control outcomes such as unhealthy food choices and alcohol and drug use (e.g. Friese et al., 2008). Future research should consider investigating other consequences of heavy media multitasking behavior, both advertising related and unrelated. Practical implications From a practical point of view, understanding the mechanisms that are driving the effects of media multitasking on advertising effectiveness for different groups of media-consumers could make it easier for practitioners to efficiently plan their media campaigns. Based on the findings of this study, the authors can derive that HMMs will be more depleted in cognitive resources and inhibitory control when media multitasking compared to LMMs. Consequently, this makes them more prone to advertising messages. This knowledge is of great importance for advertisers who could, based here on, aim to target HMMs more often than LMMs. Originality/value Two experimental studies by the authors confirm and add value to previous academic findings about the negative relation between media multitasking frequency and tasks that demand executive control. This study contributed to the previous by investigating whether individual differences between heavy and light media multitaskers make them respond differently toward advertising and whether the driving mechanism of these differences is a lack of motivation or ability to efficiently shift attention.

Background Circumscribed interests (CI) are a subcategory of restricted and repetitive behaviors that occur commonly in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). CI are characterized by an intense and focused interest in a narrow range of subjects. The purpose of this systematic review is to determine how interests are incorporated within interventions for individuals with ASD across the lifespan; what symptoms, domains and outcomes these interventions target; and the effectiveness of such interventions. Method The methods used within this review were consistent with those recommended by the Cochrane and Campbell Collaborations. Inclusion criteria were based on three predetermined categories: (1) Study Population; (2) Intervention Design; and (3) Outcome Variables. Data were extracted and coded based on these three predetermined categories. Results 246 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, of which 31 studies were eligible for data extraction. The majority of studies were single subject designs (k = 28) and focused on toddlers/preschool (k = 13) or school-aged children (k = 17). Common interests utilized were TV shows or movies (N = 21), popular characters (N = 18), computers/video games (N = 12) and transportation (N = 11). Conclusions Results suggest that the inclusion of CI within interventions can lead to positive effects across a number of domains. More research is required to examine the effects of individualized interests within group design studies. Methods for this review were registered with PROSPERO (42016036981).

Background To investigate the outcome of an integrated individual and family therapy (Intensive Contextual Treatment: ICT) in terms of reducing suffering and increasing functional adjustment among self-harming and/or suicidal adolescents with high symptom loads and their families. Methods Forty-nine self-harming and/or suicidal adolescents, Mage = 14.6, of predominantly Swedish origin and female gender (85.7%) participated with their parents. The study had a within group design with repeated measures at pre- and post-treatment, as well as six- and twelve-months follow-ups. Self-reports were used for the main outcomes; self-harm rates, suicide attempts, parent-reported days of inpatient/institutional care, internalized and externalized symptoms, perceived stress, emotion regulation, school hours and adjustment. Secondary outcomes were levels of reported expressed emotions within family dyads, as well as parental anxiety, depression and stress. Results From pre- to post-assessment, the adolescents reported significant reductions of self-harm (p = .001, d = 0.54) and suicide attempts (p

Objectives Based on the theories of stereotype threat and stereotype boost, this study explored the influence of identity salience on athletic performance of individuals (i.e., Black women) who possess one identity that is negatively stereotyped and one identity that is positively stereotyped in the domain of athletics. Black women's racial identity is positively stereotyped in regard to athletic performance, whereas their gender identity is negatively stereotyped. Design We used a between subjects design with three conditions (race salient, gender salient, and control). Athletic performance served as the dependent measure. Method Black women basketball players (N = 91) were randomly assigned to one of three identity salience conditions: race salient, gender salient, or age salient (control). Social identities were made salient by having participants complete a questionnaire before attempting to shoot free-throws. Results Participants whose racial identity before shooting free-throws was made salient had significantly better free-throw accuracy than both participants whose gender identity or age identity was made salient. Additionally, participants whose gender identity was made salient performed significantly worse than participants in the control condition. Conclusion Identity salience can play a role in either improving (i.e., stereotype boost effect) or harming (e.g., stereotype threat effect) athletic performance within the same individual. Future directions involving other individuals who possess both positively and negatively stereotyped social identities' in a particular sports domain, such as Asian male basketball players are discussed.

The use of 2D and 3D simulated learning environments in education and training has increased significantly in the past decade. Simulated learning environments provide several advantages over physical learning environments including increased safety and accessibility. Simulated learning environments can also be utilized in an online setting, increasing the efficiency of delivery, access, and supporting greater personalization of the learning process. Despite a long history of use in workforce education, researchers have questioned whether simulations provide learners with the same quality of education as physical learning environments. This research investigated how learning to construct electrical circuits using a 2D simulation, a 3D simulation or a physical breadboard impacted learning outcomes. Additionally, this study examined the influence of learner characteristics, cognitive ability and goal orientation, on the relationship between the simulated learning environments and learning outcomes. The study utilized a pretest-posttest between subjects design and included 48 participants. Results suggest that learning to construct a circuit with physical components results in higher self-efficacy, faster construction times, and higher odds of correct construction than learning in a 2D or 3D simulation. Participants in the three conditions achieved comparable results in terms of cognitive outcomes; the differences identified were based on cognitive ability and goal orientation. There were no significant differences in outcomes achieved between participants in the 2D and 3D simulations. Implications for the design of simulated learning environments and potential impact for online technical curriculum are discussed. Relevance to industry This study supports the evaluation of using online educational technology to learn technical skills. This is relevant to workforce education, especially with a diverse and distributed workforce that requires technical training.

OBJECTIVE The extent that executive function performance varies between racial/ethnic groups in the United States is unclear, limiting future studies on the problems underlying these differences. The aim of this meta-analysis was to test two competing hypotheses: The cultural differences hypothesis asserts large differences between Whites and racial/ethnic minorities in the U.S., and small differences between- (e.g., African Americans, Latinos) and within- (e.g., Latinos: Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans) minority groups. The cultural similarities hypothesis posits small differences between Whites and minorities, and these differences are equal or smaller in magnitude than differences between- and within-minorities on executive function performance. We also tested moderators of these differences. METHOD We focused on overall executive functioning performance and its three core components: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility.. A systematic search on PsycINFO, Web of Science, ERIC, PubMed, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global identified 46 records (17% unpublished; 38 independent samples) with 56,067 total participants (Mage = 44.48 years; range = 3.05-80.45; 52% female; 39.5% racial/ethnic minority). RESULTS Absolute differences between Whites and minorities (d = 0.85, 95% CI [0.65, 1.05]) were larger in magnitude compared to between-minorities (d = 0.44, 95% CI [0.28, 0.60]) and within-minorities (d = 0.09, 95% CI [0.03, 0.15]). White-minority differences were moderated by type of executive function measure and year of data collection. Post hoc analyses revealed large relative differences between some groups but not others. CONCLUSIONS Findings support the cultural differences hypothesis for executive function performance. This meta-analysis underscores the need to address social inequalities in the U.S. that drive performance differences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

This study investigated the effects of (in)formal chatbot responses and brand familiarity on social presence, appropriateness, brand attitude, and quality of interaction. An online experiment using a 2 (Communication Style: Informal vs. Formal) by 2 (Brand: Familiar vs. Unfamiliar) between subject design was conducted in which participants performed customer service tasks with the assistance of chatbots developed for the study. Subsequently, they filled out an online questionnaire. An indirect effect of communication style on brand attitude and quality of interaction through social presence was found. Thus, a chatbot’s informal communication style induced a higher perceived social presence which in turn positively influenced quality of the interaction and brand attitude. However, brand familiarity did not enhance perceptions of appropriateness, indicating participants do not assign different roles to chatbots as communication partner.

In this paper we investigate the scopal reading of disjunctions in French negative sentences with pre-schoolers. We posit that the French disjunctor “ou” does not fit the traditional disjunction PPI/non-PPI dichotomy according to which a wide scope is taken by a PPI disjunction and negation takes wide scope when the disjunction is not a PPI. We hypothesised that focus could be a succesful scopal manipulator. Us-ing the Truth Value Judgment Tasks (TVJT) of Goro et al (2004), we tested French pre-schoolers' scopal reading of negated disjunctions in a neutral prosody condition and with prosodic focus on the disjunctor in a between subject design. We found that as predicted, prosodic focus often enduced participants to adopt a disjunction wide scope reading whereas a negation wide scope reading was favored in the neutral prosody condition. This confirmed our hypothesis that focus can manipulate disjunction scope paramaters. It also shows that, when the disjunction is focalised, children have access to the disjunction wide scope reading earlier than previously thought. Finally, we can conclude that the distinction between PPI-disjunctor vs non-PPI disjunctor languages needs to be more fine-grained.

Evidence shows green space exposure has beneficial impacts on psychological and physiological wellbeing. However, aesthetic differences in color use in cultivated garden landscapes on wellbeing remains unexplored. This study investigates how warm and cool colored garden landscapes affect psychological and physiological wellbeing and how responses differ geographically. Our between subjects design used USA and UK participants exposed to videos of static garden landscapes consisting of (a) warm colors, (b) cool colors and (c) control images. Measures of subjective psychological wellbeing (UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (MACL)) and biometrics of stress using the Empatica E4 watch (Heart rate; Heart Rate Variability (HRV); Skin Temperature; Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) and Photoplethysmography) were obtained to ascertain if warm and cool colored cultivated garden landscapes affected psychological and physiological responses. Results showed statistical differences between locations in psychological and physiological wellbeing. USA participants experienced increases in hedonic tone and decreases in perceived stress after viewing warm and cool colored garden landscapes, a result not found in UK participants. Physiological indicators show geographical differences with beneficial effects of warm colors in the USA, shown in HRV and GSR measures relative to control. The UK sample presented mixed evidence regarding positive effects of warm and cool colored garden landscapes on physiological measures. These findings show stronger psychological and physiological responses to color in the US sample compared to a UK sample, suggesting geographic disparities in these responses to plant color. This should be further explored to understand color choice for landscape design to optimize outdoor settings that maximize wellbeing.

Whistleblowing is disclosure of individual or organizational frauds committed by members of an organization. Reporting and response system in organizations are related to whistleblowing intentions and they are considered by whistleblowers to conduct whistleblowing action. This study was conducted to examine the causality relationship between the reporting systems and the organizational responses with whistleblowing intentions. This study was conducted as a laboratorial study at two universities in Central Java with 88 students in Account­ing major as respondents in this study of which this study produced 73 data that are ready to use. The study uses 2x2 between subjects design and manipulates the reporting systems and organizational responses. The result showed that subjects who used an online reporting system and received a response system of whistleblower tended to have higher intentions in carrying out whistleblowing. On the other hand, subjects who used an offline reporting system and who did not received a response system of whistleblower tended to be lower in their inten­tions to do whistleblowing.

Aims To treat excessive alcohol consumption, general practices (GPs) are recommended to use non-directive implementation strategies. Directive implementation, however, may be perceived by general practice patients as something positive because of possibly indicating higher GP engagement and a more consistent treatment. In our study, we aimed to assess the readiness of patients to be treated with BI in the hypothetical event of excessive alcohol consumption either by a GP using non-directive recommendations according to WHO or by a GP using directive instructions. Additionally, we assessed the patients’ dispositional readiness to disclose alcohol-associated personal information, termed alcohol consumption self-disclosure, in order to analyze its influence on their readiness to be treated with brief intervention (BI). Methods When consulting their GP, a convenience sample of general practice patients was asked by questionnaire. By means of a between-subject design, they were asked for the readiness to be treated either with non-directive BI or with directive BI. Repeated-measure ANCOVA was used to analyze the main- and interaction effects. Results A sample of 442 general practice patients preferred the non-directive BI, F(1, 423) = 5.56, P Conclusions Future research should investigate the reasons for the patients’ preference for the non-directive BI and may develop strategies to overcome the possibly low readiness of general practice patients to be treated with BI.

Impulse buying is a common phenomenon in our daily life. Most of the previous studies focused on consumers’ personal characteristics, consumer status factors and shopping situational factors, rarely the factors about product. Product anthropomorphism is a common tool of marketing, which is used to improve consumers’ attitude and evaluation to product. We explored the effect of product anthropomorphism on impulse buying based on the dual-process framework of self-control. The study was in 2(anthropomorphism vs. non-anthropomorphism) × 2(Apple vs. Xiaomi) between subject design with mobile phone as the target product in which 269 participants participated. The results showed that product anthropomorphism positively affected impulse buying, product anthropomorphism positively predicted desire and negatively predicted inner conflicts. Desire and inner conflicts mediated the relationship between product anthropomorphism and impulse buying. Our research explored the relationship between product anthropomorphism and impulse buying, which had implications for anthropomorphism literature and impulse buying literature. The findings provided suggestions for marketers in product design and advertisements.

Pay for performance is a common practice used by organizations to increase employees’ motivation and performance, and creativity-contingent rewards have been shown to support creativity. But are all creativity-contingent rewards equal? Procedural justice can potentially affect the way that creativity-contingent rewards impact employees’ intrinsic motivation and creativity. To shed light on this practice-relevant issue, this study investigates how aspects of procedural justice—reward allocation clarity and reward evaluation fairness—impact changes in intrinsic motivation and creativity in the presence of creativity-contingent rewards. Using an incomplete factorial pretest–posttest between subjects design with four reward conditions and one control (no reward) condition, I analyzed changes in intrinsic motivation and creativity. Relative to the control condition, significant increases in both intrinsic motivation and creativity were found in the reward conditions with high evaluation fairness. However, reward allocation clarity did not yield any significant effects on changes in intrinsic motivation and creativity. The results highlight the importance of fair evaluation procedures for determining rewards if creativity-contingent rewards are to increase both intrinsic motivation and creativity. Copyright © 2020 Saether. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

For educational purposes, virtual reality (VR) is often used to produce life-like experiences. However, the use of haptic feedback in educational practices for science and mathematics remained under-studied. Haptically-enabled science simulations (HESSs) enable students to physically experience the concepts being taught via haptic feedback. We present a study on the effect of a buoyancy HESS designed to aid in the understanding of basic physics concepts. We hypothesize that introducing both visual and haptic feedback of the underlying simulated forces will improve participants understanding. We investigate this hypothesis with a 2 (haptics: yes, no) × 2 (visuals: yes, no) between subjects design user study, where all participants were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions. Participants were given a pretest of buoyancy knowledge, then instructed to interact with the buoyancy simulation, then given a post-test of buoyancy knowledge. The present study is still in the process of data collection, with 40 out of 60 participants. Preliminary results highlight a significant improvement in performance of participants in the haptic-and-visual condition, while no significant differences were observed in other conditions.

This paper presents a study using a virtual reality-based methodology that aims to investigate the effect of nature-like surroundings on interview anxiety. For this, sixty-three volunteers were asked to participate in a study in which a job interview was simulated in a virtual environment. An experimental condition – an office with a nature-like surroundings, and a control condition – without nature-like surroundings, were considered in a between subject design experiment. Self-perceived anxiety and emotional arousal were the dependent variables. Main findings suggests Main results suggest that nature-like surroundings can positively influence IA for men, whereas it negatively influences IA for women. Nature-like surroundings lowered men’s concerns regarding their communication and behavioral IA and on the other hand enhanced female’s performance IA. These findings are of great interest and can be seen as a step forward towards the understanding of gender differences amongst automatic nonconscious emotion regulation strategies.

In a between subject design 903 people completed a robust Dark Triad and a Big Five trait measure and each group was asked to report their behaviour in two situations: at work or in general. Those individuals that were asked to think of work when reporting their personality reported behaviour that was more Extraverted, Conscientious, more Emotional Stable and less Machiavellian. Unexpectedly, there was no difference for Narcissism and Psychopathy. Gender differences were smaller in the work group than the non-work group suggesting situation may moderate gender differences in personality. Implications and limitations are acknowledged.

In Simon-type interference tasks, participants are asked to perform a 2-choice reaction on a stimulus dimension while ignoring the stimulus position. Commonly, robust congruency effects are found; that is, reactions are faster when the relevant stimulus attribute and the assigned response match the location of the stimulus. Simon congruency effects are regularly attributed to a fast, nonverbal processing route. In 3 experiments, we tested the importance of verbal representations in the Simon effect by manipulating the format of representations (verbal vs. nonverbal) with stimulus material (i.e., words vs. gratings) and stimulus arrangement (i.e., horizontally vs. vertically). Results of the first experiment point to a modulation of the Simon effects by both factors when they were manipulated between subjects, up to an inversion of the Simon effect for words presented in vertical arrangement. We replicated the inverse congruency effect for verbal material in vertical arrangement when a within-participant design was used (Experiment 2) and when the impact of reading processes was ruled out (Experiment 3). One cause for this inversion might be the construction of language-based representations that counteract automatic processing given the stimulus arrangement. To investigate this, we assessed individual differences in the use of inner speech for self-instruction. Using hierarchical linear modeling analysis, we found that self-rated evaluative and motivational inner speech processes accounted for a significant portion of the Simon effect. This supports claims that individual differences predict performance even in simple cognitive tasks such as the Simon task and highlights the flexibility of basic cognitive processes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

By combining primary data on dimension importance collected in the field from three different samples and nationally representative survey data from the Dominican Republic, we offer a twofold contribution. The first one comes from an unincentivized questionnaire experiment, where the significance of the treatment effect shows that life domains are valued differently in a poverty vs a well‐being framework. This poses important questions on the anatomy of dimension importance and on the use of weights in empirical analyses, and opens the door to what we call a “concordance paradox” related to the very essence of the constructs of poverty and well‐being. As a second contribution, we employ the sets of weights collected in the field to assess the trend of multidimensional poverty and well‐being in the country. We find that the picking one set of weights or another is not a trivial choice, as they lead to opposite assessment results.

This paper analyses the impact of good vs. bad ratings during the first stage of the decision-making process when booking a hotel. This study tested the interaction between numerical ratings given to a product or service and the number of verbal reviews it has received while controlling subject susceptibility to interpersonal influence. The study conducted a full factorial between subjects design of 2 levels of ratings (good vs. bad) x 2 levels of reviews (high vs. low) in a decision-controlled setting. Results suggest an asymmetric interaction between numerical ratings and reviews: When the rating is good, the trust in the rating depends on the number of reviews, but conversely, if the rating is bad, the number of reviews has no effect on how trustworthy the rating is. Academic and managerial implications of this study and scope for future research have also been discussed.

The restaurant industry’s increased portion sizes have led to accusations that they contribute to food overconsumption. Reducing excessive food portions in restaurants, however, may be considered risky by foodservice operators concerned about consumers’ perceived value of the food. Two quasi-experiments were conducted examining how changes in portion and plate size would affect restaurant consumers’ perceived reasonable price of food and their willingness to pay. A two-by-two, between-subject factorial design was used in study 1 (n = 101) with plate size (small & medium) and portion size (regular & reduced) as independent variables. Study 2 used a between subject design with three experimental conditions: large portion, medium portion, and small portion (n = 71). Results showed that the impact of a reduced portion size on consumer’s perceived value of the food depended on the consumers’ perceived quality of the food and their purchase intention.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of pre-existing relationships between co-witnesses on statement similarity, after a post-event discussion. Although research studies have attempted to observe the effect of a pre-existing relationship on eyewitness pairs, few have investigated these effects on larger groups of co-witnesses. Four hundred and twenty participants took part in an eyewitness simulation experiment. Participants were placed into groups of five, and viewed video footage of a bar fight. After witnessing the event, participants discussed the event with group members before giving individual statements privately. The study employed a one-way between subjects design with three conditions: (1) participants discussed the event with familiar co-witnesses, (2) participants discussed the event with unfamiliar co-witnesses and (3) participants were not permitted to discuss the event with their co-witnesses (control). It was found that post-event discussion between co-witnesses increased the level of similarity in blame attribution within the eyewitness groups; however, this difference was only significant in groups where eyewitnesses shared a pre-existing relationship. In addition, the level of uncertainty was reduced when eyewitnesses took part in post-event discussions. It is suggested that this might be attributed to an increased level of informational influence between familiar co-witnesses. However, there was no evidence suggesting that post-event discussions led to an increase in false eyewitness statements.

Marcos, MA, Koulla, PM, and Anthos, ZI. Preseason maximal aerobic power in professional soccer players among different divisions. J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 356-363, 2018-The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the anthropometric, maximal oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max), and positional differences of first division (D1) professional football players from players of second (D2) and third (D3) divisions in Cyprus football leagues. Four hundred twenty-one professional male football players participated in this study. All subjects underwent anthropometric and body composition evaluation. In addition, they performed an incremental cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) on a treadmill for V[Combining Dot Above]O2max evaluation. The results were analyzed using 1-way analysis of variance, between subjects design revealing significant effects among the divisions. Tukey's honest significant difference (HSD) tests demonstrated that players from D1 scored significantly higher on V[Combining Dot Above]O2max and lasted significantly longer on the treadmill than participants of D2 and D3 (p ≤ 0.05). Similar findings were demonstrated when D2 was contrasted against D3 players. Goalkeepers, defenders, and forwards demonstrated significantly higher anthropometric measurements, whereas wingers and midfielders demonstrated significantly higher V[Combining Dot Above]O2max (p ≤ 0.05) than goalkeepers and defenders. The findings of this study clearly demonstrated that cardiovascular fitness, as determined by CPET, is an important fitness parameter that differentiates professional football players who play at a more advanced level. This could be attributed to the different seasonal schedules that allow for longer transition time for lower division players and thus favoring greater detraining effects. Emphasis should be given by fitness professionals on transition period training to minimize the detraining effects especially in lower divisions.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of a fashion store’s visual complexity on consumers’ behaviour. Considering environmental order and individuals’ sensation-seeking tendencies, the authors examine the effect of visually complex fashion stores on consumers in a more conclusive way to address the inconsistent effect found in the previous literature. Design/methodology/approach This study features a 3 (visual complexity level: low, medium, high) × 2 (environmental order condition: low, high) between subjects design, with individual sensation-seeking tendency included as a moderator. Using this design, an online survey was administered to 188 participants in South Korea. Findings The results indicate that there is a three-way interaction, where the interaction effect of visual complexity and environmental order is moderated by individuals’ sensation-seeking tendency. The effect of visual complexity on approach behaviours had an inverted U-shape in the low-order condition, while had a positive linear shape in the high-order condition, and the interaction effect was significant only for high-sensation seekers. Practical implications The findings assist practitioners in establishing strategies for visual merchandising and store design within fashion stores. It is suggested that retailers consider environmental order when organising a large amount of varied merchandise in a complex environment. Store managers must adjust the complexity and environmental order to meet the optimal stimulation level of their target consumers. Originality/value This study strengthens the literature on visual complexity by applying the concept to the retail environment. The results provide a significant contribution to the literature because they show how individual-level and store-level variables interact to influence consumer behaviour.

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of model attractiveness on brand attitude and purchase intention, and examine whether product-model match-up plays a moderating role in the relationship between model attractiveness and brand attitude and purchase intention. The model attractiveness is consist of psychological and physical attractiveness of the model. The authors investigate how product-model match-up influence the strength of the relationship between model attractiveness - brand attitude and purchase intention. The purpose of this is to test whether product-model match-up influence the form and effectiveness of a model attractiveness on brand attitude and purchase intention and suggest the effective and efficient methods in the model selection strategies to increase advertising effectiveness based on the results of this study. Research design, data, and methodology - The experimental design for this study was the between subject design based on 2 group of the psychological attractiveness(high vs. low) × product-model match-up (high vs low) and 2 group of the physical attractiveness(high vs. low) × product-model match-up(high vs low). And a preliminary investigation was conducted to develop experimental stimuli through manipulation check to enhance the external validity of experimental research. The attractiveness of the model and product-model match-up are independent variables and manipulative variables in presentation of experimental stimuli. The self-administered methode experiment was conducted on 300 subjects in four groups constructed according to the independent variables. Result – The findings provide partial support for a moderator for product-model match-up on the model attractiveness - brand attitude and purchase intention. First, the influence of psychological attractiveness and physical attractiveness on brand attitude and purchase intention was shown significant. Also, it was found that the average value of brand attitude and purchase intention according to psychological attractiveness was significantly higher than the average value of brand attitude and purchase intention according to physical attractiveness in additional analysis. Second, the average value of brand attitude and purchase intention were higher when product - model match-up was high in both high and low psychological attractiveness and physical attractiveness of the model. However, in the case of psychological attractiveness, the correlation effect with product - model match-up was significant, but in the case of physical attractiveness, it was not significant. Conclusions – The results of this study suggest that the attractiveness factor should be considered in selecting the ad model by verifying the effect of the attractiveness of the model on the advertising effect. In particular, this study has great significance both academically and practically in terms of suggesting such implications that the advertising effect of psychological attractiveness and physical attractiveness may be different depending on the product type by additional analysis.

Background: Waterpipe tobacco smoking (WTS) has increased substantially in the Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR), affecting young adults who perceive waterpipe as safer than cigarette smoking. Applying pictorial health warning labels (HWLs) on tobacco products has been effective in communicating health risks associated with tobacco smoking. However, there are few experimental studies that examined pictorial HWLs specific to WTS. Methods/design: This report describes the design and protocol of the first factorial experimental study that aims to test the effectiveness of pictorial HWLs based on their placement on waterpipe device, tobacco, and charcoal packages among young adult smokers and non-smokers residing in Lebanon and Tunisia. After completing a baseline assessment, participants will be randomly assigned to 3 experimental conditions in a 3 (HWL: pictorial HWL on tobacco package vs. pictorial HWL on 3 placements [device, tobacco, and charcoal packages] vs. text-only HWL on tobacco package) x 4 (pictorial HWLs) x 2 (waterpipe smokers vs. non-smokers) factorial design. We will use a within/between-subject design, where pictorial HWLs and time (pre vs. post-exposure) are the within-subject factors and waterpipe smoking status as the between-subjects factor. Participants will complete post-exposure measures that include attention, perceived harm, intention to quit (smokers) or initiate smoking (non-smokers). Discussion: This is the first international study examining the placements of pictorial HWLs using efficient within/between subject design. Findings will provide additional evidence to convince policymakers to consider three placements of HWLs specific to WTS as a promising regulatory target to curb WTS.

In this study, we investigate whether the affective state (happy or bored) of a human or virtual instructor in an instructional video on statistics yields different learning processes and outcomes. The positivity principle states that the emotional state of the instructor is recognized by students (hypothesis 1) and affects their emotional state (hypothesis 2), motivational state (hypothesis 3), and learning outcomes (hypothesis 4). The equivalence principle states that people respond to the emotional tone of computerized onscreen agents in the same way as for human instructors (hypothesis 5). In a 2 × 2 between subjects design, participants were assigned to watch a statistics video in one of four groups: Happy Human (HH), Happy Agent (HA), Bored Human (BH), and Bored Agent (BA). Then, they rated the emotional state of the instructor, rated their own emotional state, rated their motivational state, and took a posttest. The findings support predictions 1, 2, and 3 of the positivity principle but not prediction 4, perhaps because an immediate test was not sensitive enough. The equivalence principle (hypothesis 5) was partially supported as the human and agent groups showed similar rating patterns although the effects were stronger for human instructors for recognizing the instructor's emotion. As education transitions online, it is important to note that students are happier and more motivated when they learn from happy instructors than from bored instructors.

This study experimentally examines the effect of loyalty level and retaliation strength, on accountants’ propensity to blow the whistle (PBW) when faced with a serious wrongdoing. It is argued that individuals with higher levels of loyalty are more likely to blow the whistle than are individuals with lower levels of loyalty. Besides, it is expected that individuals facing a weak retaliation are more likely to blow the whistle than are individuals facing a strong retaliation. Seventy working students enrolled in post-graduate of accounting program in two Indonesia universities participated in the study. Participants responded to three hypothetical whistle-blowing scenarios on one of two conditions –i.e., strong or weak retaliation for whistleblowing, and completed an instrument that measured loyalty. This study examines the arguments using the 2x2 between subjects design. Unconsistent with the philosophical theory of Larmer (1992), Corvino (2002), and Vandekerckhove and Commers (2004), this study empirically finds that the level of loyalty does not affect their PBW. In other words, this study fails to obtain empirical evidence about the effect of loyalty level on PBW. Besides, unlike results reported by Arnold and Ponemon (1991) and Liyanarachchi and Newdick (2009), a significant effect of retaliation strength on participants’ PBW is not found.

Several studies show that sensory cues influence consumer decision making processes. While scent is a key component of a market’s physical environment, it has received far less attention in the academic literature as compared, for example, with visual cues. In addition, most of the studies that examine the effect of ambient scents fail on one or both of these criteria: to properly control the influence of nuisance factors and/or to elicit preferences under real monetary incentives. We collected data from a laboratory experiment where we varied on a between subjects design the dispersion of a citrus fragrance. We then elicited subjects’ willingness to pay for two unbranded products — a mug and a chocolate — by having subjects participate in a 2nd price Vickrey auction. We also elicited subjects’ risk preferences using lottery choice tasks. Our results show a statistically and economically significant effect on subjects’ willingness to pay: valuations increased up to 49% for subjects who were exposed to a citrus scent as compared to the control group. We do not find a statistically significant effect of the citrus scent on subjects’ risk aversion.

In the clinical neuroscience literature, between-subjects differences in neural activity are presumed to reflect reliable measures-even though the psychometric properties of neural measures are almost never reported. The current article focuses on the critical importance of assessing and reporting internal consistency reliability-the homogeneity of "items" that comprise a neural "score." We demonstrate how variability in the internal consistency of neural measures limits between-subjects (i.e., individual differences) effects. To this end, we utilize error-related brain activity (i.e., the error-related negativity or ERN) in both healthy and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) participants to demonstrate options for psychometric analyses of neural measures; we examine between-groups differences in internal consistency, between-groups effect sizes, and between-groups discriminability (i.e., ROC analyses)-all as a function of increasing items (i.e., number of trials). Overall, internal consistency should be used to inform experimental design and the choice of neural measures in individual differences research. The internal consistency of neural measures is necessary for interpreting results and guiding progress in clinical neuroscience-and should be routinely reported in all individual differences studies. (PsycINFO Database Record