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Under the Forest Rights Act 2006, the government of India has recognised the Individual Forest Rights (IFR) of forest dwellers that formalise the de jure land tenure over forest land. This is expected to incentivise owners to invest and take better care of their forest land which, in turn, is assumed to improve households’ income and financial access and thereby reduce their food insecurity. Using the primary data collected from 300 IFR beneficiary households in Bankura district of the Indian state of West Bengal and the ordinal logistic regression model, this paper identifies and analyses the determinant factors influencing household food insecurity. Results show that larger IFR land size areas, higher education levels of the household head, and higher annual income are associated with a significant reduction in food insecurity. On the contrary, larger household sizes, higher dependency ratios, and the occurrence of crop damage are associated with a highly significant increase in food insecurity. Hence, it is suggested that in order to help reduce households’ food insecurity among forest dwellers in the state, the assignment of IFR land area of sufficient size to forest dwellers’ households may further be encouraged.

India’s economy is rooted in agriculture, and the majority of the farmers, being smallholders, are highly exposed to the adversities associated with climate change. It has been argued by several researchers that perceiving climate change is a pre-condition for the adoption of adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerabilities. In this regard, studies are limited to explore the question ‘is the perceptions of changing climate primarily motivate the smallholders to take adaptation actions?’ In this nexus, the present paper seeks to understand the linkages between smallholders’ climate change perception and the changes in their farming practices. The study was conducted in the seven villages of Sub-Himalayan West Bengal, India, using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools. Key results show, (1) respondents perceived increased warming and decreased precipitation in accordance with the scientific analysis; (2) abundance of groundwater, misconceptions and lack of awareness shaped respondents’ agricultural risk perception, and despite decreasing precipitation, water management appeared less risky (3) incorporation of irrigation, diversification towards high valued and high yielding crops, as well as farm mechanizations were the major changes in the farming practices; and, (4) except water management, rest of the changes were not necessarily made to adapt with climate change instead to increase crop yield and profit. It is noticed that the changes in farming practices perhaps made the farmers unconsciously adapted to climate change. Still, a prolonged continuation of some of those practices may lead to maladaptation. In this regard, we have given direction towards necessary policy formulation and future research to achieve sustainability.

In recent years, the adverse effects of growing water scarcity on the lives and livelihoods of poor people have become a major policy concern in India. This paper reviews the effectiveness of macro...

The property right is one of the most vital factors determining the sustainable governance and utilization of the wetlands. The paper analyses property right issues and institutional arrangements of a rural man-made wetland in dryland areas of West Bengal, India. It uses Participatory Rural Appraisal, Key-Informant’s Interview, Focus Group Discussion, and household interview to accomplish this objective. The wetland, being located in the dryland landscape, serves as the primary freshwater source for surrounding communities and is used for multiple purposes. However, the conflict among the stakeholders on property right has caused the dissolution of the traditional local institution. Lack of regulation on water and fish extraction from the wetland affected essential human activities like household use, irrigation, and fishery. Moreover, conflict among the stakeholders adversely eroded any form of collective action for maintenance and renovation of the wetland. The study suggests that decentralized conflict resolution through dialogue is the pre-requisite for encouraging collective action and development of institutional arrangements which are vital for the restoration and sustainable utilization of the wetland.

Conventional economic argument suggests that higher economic growth and development is positively associated with increasing stock of natural assets of a country and/or region. However, empirical evidences suggest that the relationship between natural resource abundance and economic growth can be either detrimental, beneficial or both, depending on the time period of analysis and the variables used. The objective of this paper is to examine the relation between mineral resource extraction and various socio-economic development indicators in Odisha, India. The analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics, ANOVA and OLS. The results reveal that the relationship between mineral resource dependence and various development indicators is mixed. Districts that are more dependent on minerals have experienced higher percapita income, reduction of both rural poverty and infant mortality rate. However, in terms of other development indicators such as presence of communication facilities and nutritional status of children, mining-districts have lagged behind. In order to overcome these problems large scale investment in education, health and good governance is necessary. In particular, effort must be made to improve the living conditions of indigenous communities residing in mining districts through targeted programs, especially in the areas of health, education, sanitation, and food security.

While access to assured irrigation is a prerequisite for sustainable agricultural intensification, increasing use of groundwater for the same and decreasing areas under surface irrigation are expected to cause considerable hydro-ecological imbalance and hence serious concerns for sustainability. Importantly, the extent, nature, efficiency and impact of irrigation vary across regions depending on the geophysical and agro-climatic conditions, farming practices and socioeconomic setup. Nevertheless, it is suggested that appropriate crop diversification coupled with necessary policy and institutional supports can potentially reduce pressure on groundwater and make intensification in agriculture sustainable. Given this backdrop, this paper examines impact of irrigation and crop diversification on agricultural intensification and its implications for future groundwater dynamics in major Indian states. Using secondary data and applying panel data regression techniques for the period 1990–1991 to 2014–2015, the paper finds that both greater irrigation facilities and diversified crop basket increase cropping intensity. Similarly, use of more chemical fertilizers and higher yield also influence cropping intensity positively. However, rainfall variations and share of GSDP in agriculture have no significant impact. Based on the literature review and the above findings as well as using the insights from the informal interactions and random discussion carried out with the farmers and others stakeholders (e.g., researchers, community workers, extension service providers, NGO, etc.), the fuzzy cognitive models show that future policies and institutions should focus on improvement in agricultural systems and promoting surface irrigation. Besides, conservation and harvesting of rainwater, efficient functioning of the user groups, judicious use of chemical fertilizers and emphasis on cultivation of less water-intensive crops would also be crucial in this regard.

This study examines the association between community transmission of COVID-19 cases and climatic predictors, considering travel information and annual parasite index across the three climatic zones, i.e., tropical, subtropical, and temperate. A Boosted Regression Tree model has been employed to understand the association between the COVID-19 cases. The results show that average temperature and average relative humidity are the major contributors in explaining the differentials of COVID-19 transmission in temperate and subtropical regions whereas the mean diurnal temperature range and temperature seasonality are the most significant determinants in tropical regions. The average temperature is the most influential factor affecting the number of COVID-19 cases in France, Turkey, the US, the UK, and Germany, and the cases decrease sharply above 10°C. Among the tropical countries, India found to be most affected by mean diurnal temperature, and Brazil fazed by temperature seasonality. Most of the temperate countries like France, USA, Turkey, UK, and Germany with an average temperature between 5–12°C had high number of COVID-19 cases. The findings are expected to add to the ongoing debates on the influence of climatic factors influencing the number of COVID-19 cases and could help researchers and policymakers to make appropriate decisions for preventing the spread.HighlightsAnalyzed influence of climatic & bioclimatic factors on the spread of COVID-19First to analyze COVID-19 cases in 228 cities globally across three climatic zonesTemperature & humidity influenced COVID-19 cases in temperate & sub-tropicsMean diurnal temperature & temperature seasonality had effects in tropicsLow temperature elicits COVID-19 cases in France, Turkey, the US, the UK, & GermanyGraphical abstract

The paper examines (i) the factors affecting households’ attitude towards conservation and relocation and (ii) the impact of relocation on the livelihood of displaced tribal communities of Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR) in India. The study uses primary data collected from 40 relocated households and compares them with 61 non-relocated households currently residing inside the core zone of STR. The study finds that the average share of income from agriculture, livestock and non-timber forest products are relatively higher in case of households residing inside the core area. Conversely, income derived from non-agricultural wage labour contributes maximum to the total income of the relocated households. Although access to educational facilities, transport and health care are reported to be some of the immediate benefits after relocation, food security of the displaced households is found to be adversely affected due to reduced crop diversity and output. The econometric results find that the working-age population and the literates in the region are more willing to relocate from the reserve. Particularly, the male members in the community are more desirous of participating in the relocation process and reaping the associated benefits as opposed to their female counterparts. The study gainsays the existing conservation paradigm via relocation and suggests that participatory capacity building of the affected community alongside consultation with all the stakeholders can go a long way in achieving the twin objectives of biodiversity conservation and local livelihood promotion.

Floods in India are regular phenomenon that occurs in almost all parts of the country, causing significant damage to human lives, assets and ecosystem. Rapid change in weather patterns and decline in forest cover are considered to be the main reasons for frequent floods and associated damage to both human and natural system. Does forest cover help prevent frequent occurrences of flood and reduce flood related damages? Empirical evidences on the flood protective role of forest cover do not give a clear picture. While few studies find a strong link between forest cover and reduced flood incidence, several other studies from across the globe have challenged this traditional notion of the protective role of forest cover. The present study makes an attempt to examine the association between forest cover and flood damage using data from Indian states and the flood affected districts of the eastern Indian state of West Bengal, taking into account the social, economic, climatic and infrastructural parameters. The findings suggest that forest cover tends to reduce the extent of flood damage and hence has the ability to protect human lives and properties during flood events. It is essential that mitigation and adaptation strategies are shaped in a way that promotes preservation and regeneration of forest resources. Hence, the present study suggests adoption of ecosystem-based adaptation measures along with traditional hard structure flood prevention measures in order to prevent flood related damages effectively.

The study assesses household livelihood vulnerability and adaptive capacity in a flood prone area of the eastern Indian state of West Bengal. The analysis is based on the primary data collected from two administrative blocks of Murshidabad district of the state where frequent occurrences of floods cause damages to both human lives and property. In order to develop a comprehensive livelihood framework to measure the degree of livelihood vulnerability of the flood affected households, the study uses both vulnerability framework proposed by the IPCC and Sustainable Livelihood Framework developed by the DFID. A composite Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVIs) is estimated by combining the household level data, and a comparative analysis is carried out between two administrative blocks and overall district level scenario. The results suggest that Jiaganj block is more vulnerable than Berhampore block; the overall adaptive capacity of the households was less than the exposure and sensitivity to flood events. Vulnerability elements such as exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity are found to be significantly influenced by age of the household head, household income, land holding size and family size. Some of the key household coping and adaptation strategies to floods identified in the study area include borrowing money from friends/relatives, money lender, selling assets and livestock, diversification of livelihoods, migration, elevation of the height of houses, preserving food and fuel stocks.

The present study aims to identify and analyze factors responsible for the discontinuity of irrigation tanks and the declining groundwater levels in the Indian state of West Bengal, and attempts to establish the link between age-old water-harvesting structures such as tanks (surface water) and groundwater recharge . Using district-level secondary data from 1992 to 2011, a fixed effect and dynamic panel regression models have been estimated in order to identify the determinants of the performance of irrigation tanks and the decline of groundwater levels, respectively. The results indicate that, while the average annual rainfall positively influences the performance of irrigation tanks, the mechanization of the farms, the density of the wells, increased rural population and per capita income adversely affect the performance of tanks. The results of the determinants of the decline of groundwater levels show that, while the average annual rainfall, density of tanks and forest cover are likely to influence groundwater levels positively, the density of wells is found to be adversely affecting the groundwater levels in the state. The interaction between tank irrigation (surface water) and groundwater levels is found to be strong. Hence, both tank irrigation and well irrigation should be used as complementary methods. rather than substitutes in order to maintain a hydrological balance, and use and manage water resources sustainably in the long run.

A decade has elapsed since the inception of the MGNREGA. While this scheme has been able to act as viable source of alternative rural employment, the major challenge pertains to job demand and employment creation by as much as stipulated. The present study aims to identify factors influencing the incidence and extent of household participation in MGNREGA in Mayurbhanj and Ganjam districts of Odisha. The findings suggest that ‘clientelism’ is an overriding force under MGNREGA, indicating thereby that this scheme is a potent means to create ‘political society’. It is the awareness of the prospective benefits of a job card that motivates people to exhibit their willingness to have it and to get access. This awareness leads to creation of employment for those seeking jobs. The results also signal the possibility of ‘elite capture’. Households possessing more land holdings may possess job cards, despite demanding fewer jobs, as they seem to be influential in rural social–political milieu. However, the programme appears to be pro-poor and gender-sensitive. In order to make it more effective, it may be necessary to overcome the possibilities of ‘clientelism’ and ‘elite capture’, and improve the awareness level.

One of the major challenges in the world today is to recognize, maintain and/or enhance beneficial contributions of nature to people with minimum distortions to the local ecology. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods and a context-specific perspective, the present study identifies and assesses various cultural ecosystem services people obtain from traditional water bodies in West Bengal, India. The study also explores the ways to incorporate cultural ecosystem services in management initiatives of traditional water bodies at local level. It is found that people obtain a variety of non-material benefits from the traditional water bodies which include artistic inspiration, cultural heritage, social relationship, and various services relating to religious, spiritual, aesthetic, recreational and environmental aspects. The cultural ecosystem services are often not documented in empirical studies and are declining due to socio-cultural and environmental changes in the region. It is observed that use of these cultural ecosystem services by households vary significantly with their cultural practices, socio-economic (e.g. wealth and social status of households) and demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender and education level of household head). Thus, mainstreaming cultural ecosystem services that are generally not amenable to biophysical and/or monetary matrices can play a crucial role in sustainable use and management of traditional water bodies.

Biotic pressure in and around protected areas (PA) is the primary cause of biodiversity loss in many developing countries across the globe. The pressure comes partly from biomass energy dependency in the form of heavy extraction of fuelwood from the forests. Although biomass fuels provide easily accessible and affordable sources of domestic energy to the rural masses, their combustion results in environmental and health‐related hazards. The objectives of this paper are to assess the patterns of household energy use in a subsistence forest economy and analyze the factors that influence their energy use choice for cooking and lighting. The paper uses primary data collected randomly from 244 households located in and around the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR), situated in the eastern Indian state of Odisha. Age of the household head, number of days in wage employment, number of adult males and females in a household, education of the household head and landholding size are found to be the major variables that determine household fuelwood collection sources inside the reserve. Considering household structure as an income indicator, the analysis clearly shows that non‐poor households prefer to use clean energy (i.e. solar) for lighting, while poor households tend to use solid fuel. Energy policies for development should be based on the realistic proposition that fuelwood will remain the major source of energy for cooking for substantial proportions of the world’s population. Promotion of public education, social forestry schemes and fuel‐efficient improved chulhas should be encouraged in order to reduce household dependence on fuelwood. Moreover, devolving sufficient property rights over forest resources to local communities may help secure their broad‐based and active participation in the decision‐making process, which may result in a positive change in the attitude of the local people towards biodiversity conservation.

Forests provide numerous environmental services such as watershed protection, nutrient cycling, pollution control, climatic regulation, carbon sequestration, flood mitigation, and protection from storms, landslides, and soil erosion. Degradation of forest resources is likely to cause adverse effects on the economy and environment both locally and globally. Further, it is observed that the natural forests do reduce the frequency and severity of floods as it traps water during heavy rainfall and releases the same slowly into streams reducing the run off. However, this link between forest covers and flood damages is still unclear and yet to be settled in empirical literatures. Also, the protective role of forests in Indian context has remained largely unexplored and this paper attempts to fill this research gap. The objective of this study is, therefore, to examine the impact of forest cover on the extent of flood damage in India controlling various social, economic and demographic aspects. The study uses secondary data across the Indian states for the period 1998–2011. The data were analyzed using the Poisson and ordinary least square (OLS) regression models. The findings suggest that forest cover in India has an inverse relationship with the flood damages. In addition, socio-economic factors such as literacy, per capita net state domestic product and population size have significant influence on the extent of flood damages. Hence, investments in forest protection and regeneration are necessary to restrict flood damages and protect human lives and properties.

According to the energy ladder hypothesis, electricity is at the top of the energy ladder of household energy use that depends primarily on wealth status, income and education levels of the users. However, it is often observed that households with higher income, wealth, and education levels do not use electricity for all domestic activities such as lighting, heating, and cooking, creating a ladder within a ladder. Using a comprehensive data set from the Living Standard Measurement Study from four African countries (Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda), covering > 17,000 households, this paper investigates the factors determining a household's adoption of electricity for lighting only and for lighting and cooking. The results of a multinomial logit model and an ordered probit model show that demographic characteristics, a household's wealth and human capital, access to markets and remoteness greatly accelerate a household's use of electricity for light and cooking, which provides evidence of a ladder within a ladder.

The purpose of the current research is to examine the factors that influence household use of determinants of renewable and clean energy sources used for lighting purposes in Africa using the data from the Living Standard Measurement Study (LSMS) from three African countries: Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Malawi. For this purpose, the paper uses multinomial logit and ordered probit econometrics models. The descriptive analysis reveals that rural households are dependent largely on kerosene and batteries for lighting their houses, while electricity and batteries form a major source of energy for lighting urban households. A small fraction of households uses solid fuels and solar as their source of energy for lighting. Econometric results show that female-headed households are likely to adopt clean and renewable sources of energy compared to male-headed households. Wealthier and more educated households are found to use electricity and solar energy for lighting, while poorer households tend to use kerosene, batteries, and solid fuels. Empirical results indicated that the Ethiopian households, followed by Malawian households, are more likely to use clean sources of energy compared to Tanzanian households.

Efficient use of limited landholding in farming is the key to poverty reduction and inclusive growth in the agrarian economies like India that have a large number of land-constrained farmers. It is generally suggested that cultivation of horticultural crops in dry season can increase cropping intensity and help in better use of land leading to greater livelihood opportunities and higher farm income. However, limited scale of farming, market imperfections, lack of social and human capitals and failures of policies and institutions pose several constraints to optimum use of land and hence intensification in agriculture. This paper explores if collective farming and participation in value chains can potentially enhance scale of farming by the land-constrained farmers and strengthen their market linkages. The paper is based on experiences and insights gathered through repeated engagements and focus group discussions with land-constrained farmers and other stakeholders from two selected villages under the project Promoting Socially Inclusive and Sustainable Agricultural Intensification in West Bengal and Bangladesh (SIAGI) and their nearby markets of West Bengal, India. It is found that collectivization and development of diversified value chains along with off-farm activities can strengthen market linkages of land-constrained farmers. Apart from distance, market assurance and market acceptance also influence choice of markets by the land-constrained farmers. Further, given the limited scope and associated risks of collective marketing, particularly in the absence of enough aggregation opportunities, diversified crop baskets aligned with market demand appear to be more beneficial. However, the choice between crop diversification and cluster development still remains a critical issue and, therefore, requires further scrutiny.

Given persistent malnutrition, especially among children and women, promoting nutrition-sensitive farming practices among smallholder farmers is often suggested as a potential pathway. However, an important question is, do the smallholder farmers in developing countries like India consider nutritional value of crops while making their cropping decisions? This paper analyzes behaviour of such households’ towards nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) in West Bengal, India. Based on both primary and secondary data, it is found that households’ awareness about NSA depends on their landholding size. The land rich farmers are better aware about the nutritional values of crops, whereas decisions for self-consumption of nutritious vegetables by female members positively influence the awareness level. Besides, land-constrained farmers prefer to sell their produce for cash income rather than self-consumption. This can potentially undermine their nutritional status, particularly when large part of income is spent on non-food items. The findings provide important directions for intervention strategies to promote NSA through land-constrained farmers.

Using primary data collected randomly from 244 households across 11 villages located in and around the Similipal Tiger Reserve in the eastern Indian state of Odisha, this study examines the extent and pattern of household collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and identifies and analyzes the factors that influence a household's participation in NTFP activities vis-a-vis alternative livelihood activities. Descriptive statistics and econometric techniques such as probit, tobit, and Heckman two-step selection models were used to analyze the data. The study finds that households derive a significant portion of their income from the collection of NTFPs; however, the extent and pattern of household dependence on NTFPs for income differ widely across different socioeconomic and demographic profiles. Level of education, age, landholding and household size, number of children, and gender influence the intensity of household collection of NTFPs. Households located inside the core zone of the reserve tend to depend more on NTFP collection compared to households residing in the buffer zone. Provision of non-farm employment and adequate farm land will go a long way in reducing household dependence on NTFPs and thereby improve forest conservation outcomes.

The use of clean sources of energy for cooking is critical for securing better health for women and children and improving the overall standard of living of people in developing countries. Despite increasing awareness and the revolution in energy sources, a vast majority of households in developing countries continue to use solid fuels for cooking, which are considered to be harmful to both the environment and human health. This paper uses the World Bank's comprehensive living standard survey measurement data from Ethiopia, Malawi and Tanzania to analyze cooking fuel use patterns and their determinants. The descriptive analysis shows that a significant number of households use solid fuels for cooking and only a small fraction of households use clean fuels such as electricity, liquid petroleum gas. Rural households and those situated far from markets are more dependent on dirty fuels. Multinomial logit and ordered probit model estimation results show that female-headed households, household heads with a higher level of education, urban and wealthy households are more likely to use modern energy sources such as electricity and liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and are less likely to use solid fuels.

About 73% of Bhutan’s land area is currently under forest coverage, and the forest occupies a potentially important position in promoting rural livelihood and thereby alleviating the poverty of people living in and around the forest. This study uses data from the Bhutan Living Standard Survey to examine the relative contribution of wood and non-wood-based forest products to rural household income and poverty alleviation. It uses a propensity score matching approach to correct for potential sample selection bias that may arise due to systematic differences between households who exploit forest resources and those who do not. Our results show that rural households with forestry related activities have a higher income and are less prone to poverty than those who do not exploit forest resources. However, the increase in income due to forestry activities is in general limited, although this increase may be substantial for the poorest households, representing up to 25% of their income. Our results also ...

Provision of safe drinking water is essential for the promotion of human well-being. This paper makes an attempt to examine the patterns of access to drinking water, identify and analyze the factors that influence households access to safe drinking water sources, and analyze factors determining the extent of households travel to fetch drinking water, and assess the effects of access to safe drinking water on human health in Bhutan, using the data from the Bhutan Living Standard Survey 2012 (BLSS 2012). For this, various methodological tools have been adopted such as logistic regression model, censored least absolute deviation model, and the propensity score matching (PSM) approach. The logistic regression results show that households with educated, younger, and male members are more likely to have access to safe drinking water. Wealthier households also prefer safe drinking water than their poorer counterparts. The PSM results suggest that households having access to safe drinking water have fewer stomach disorders and skin diseases, and are likely to incur less expenditure on medicine. Keeping these findings in mind, the paper suggests that the Bhutanese government should invest in water infrastructure, which may lead to a significant reduction in water-borne diseases and health expenditure.

With growing demand for mineral resources and favourable policy towards the mining sector, developing countries have become investment hubs for mineral extraction, which has changed the socioeconomic and ecological scenarios particularly in rural areas. Extractive industries such as coal mining generate negative externalities that bring irreversible changes in the local ecological conditions, which adversely affect the local economy and threatens the sustainability of local livelihood systems. The objective of this paper is to analyse the effects of coal mining on local traditional livelihood systems in the eastern Indian state of Odisha. The study is carried out using household level data collected from four mining villages located in the Ib valley coal field of Odisha. The problem of sustainability of local traditional livelihoods is examined in the light of economic theories of sustainability (e.g. weak and strong sustainability) and sustainable livelihood approach (SLA). The results show that rural households in the mining area experience both positive and negative outcomes from the coal mining activities. The expansion of mines has provided employment to locals directly as well as indirectly, which has helped to increase financial as well as physical capitals. On the other hand, the reduction in the provision of ecosystem services due to adverse effects of coal mining resulted in lower yields in traditional livelihood activities such as forest, agriculture, and animal husbandry. The paper suggests that in order to effectively internalize the externalities arising from coal mining and maintain the sustainability of local livelihood system in Odisha, there is a need to reinvest some part of resource rents in regeneration of natural capital of the region.

This paper uses data from three Bhutan Living Standard surveys (BLSS 2003, BLSS 2007, and BLSS 2012) to examine the trends and patterns of household energy consumption, and identify and analyze the factors that influence household energy choices, consumption intensity and the per capita household expenditure on energy sources in Bhutan. During the last decade significant numbers of Bhutanese households have switched to cleaner energy sources. Empirical results show that a household׳s choice of cleaner energy sources is driven by income level and household wealth, the age, gender and education of the household heads, access to electricity, and location. Education and income have a differential role on the choice of clean or dirty fuel; wealthier and more educated households use and rely more on clean sources of energy like electricity and liquid petroleum gas while poorer households use and rely on dirty fuel such as fuelwood and kerosene. The study shows that female-headed households are more likely to choose cleaner fuels and, above all, the availability of a clean and cost-effective source of energy within proximity to the household is an important factor in the adoption of clean energy. Several models using a variety of alternative independent variables, such as proxies for education and wealth, were estimated and confirmed the robustness of the results.

The objectives of the present study are to (1) identify and analyze the factors influencing household participation in community forest management programs, and (2) assess the effects of community participation in forest management on household income and poverty levels in Bhutan. The study is based on a comprehensive dataset of 4173 rural households from all the agro-ecological regions of Bhutan. The probit estimation on the factors influencing household participation indicates that educated, young and wealthy households are more likely to participate in the community forest management program. The propensity score matching (PSM) approach was employed to correct for potential sample selection bias that may arise due to systematic differences between the participant and non-participant households. The PSM analysis was carried out by employing different matching algorithms i.e. nearest neighbor matching, kernel-based matching, radius matching and mahalanobis metric matching. The empirical results indicate that participating households have higher income levels in the range of Ngultrum 2605–3169. In addition, the study finds that the participation in community forest management by households may reduce poverty in the range of 5–12 percentage point. The participating households have higher food security levels in the range of 12%–19% as compared to non-participating households.

This study assesses the cost of coal mining on agriculture and human health in one of the prominent mining regions in the Indian state of Odisha. The study is based on household-level data collected from four mining (polluted) villages and two control (non-polluted) villages in the Ib Valley region of western Odisha. An “effects-on-production” approach has been used to analyze the effects of pollution on agriculture, whereas a “human-capital” approach and a probit model have been applied to derive estimates about the effects of mining on human health. The results reveal that the quantity of fertilizers used influences the average paddy yield positively, whereas the location of villages influences negatively the same yield, implying that average yield per acre in the mining villages is significantly lower than that of the control villages. Respiratory illness is the most prevalent and costly health problem among individuals residing in the area. Females are more likely to suffer from respiratory illness than males. Further, families housing greater numbers of literate persons have fewer incidence of respiratory disease. Inhabitants of the mining villages show higher exposure to respiratory diseases, than do inhabitants of the control villages.

This study analyses the factors responsible for effective management and conservation of forest resources in Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR) in India. Both primary and secondary data have been used for analyzing the determinants of forest conservation outcome in 35 sample villages located in and around STR. The result shows that forest growth is positively associated with function of local management institutions, caste homogeneity, and distance to forest department and nearest market. Moreover, it is concluded that efforts at improving forest conservation outcomes should not be confined to the poorest communities, as rich communities are largely responsible for adopting degrading resource use practices. Our result recommends the revival of existing local institutions and promotion of more participatory community management approaches in the STR. Further, in order to reduce trust deficit that exist between fringe villages and the forest department, more usufruct and ownership rights over resource should be transferred to local people, which in turn may enhance better forest conservation outcome.

Lack of access to clean, affordable and adequate energy and large scale use of solid fuels such as firewood and cow dung cake is one of the reasons for a lower quality of life in developing countries. It is observed that majority of households in the world that uses solid fuels are located in south Asian countries. The objective of this paper is to examine the pattern of household energy uses, and identify and analyze the factors influencing household choices of energy, sources of fuelwood collection, and family members involved in fuelwood collection. The paper uses primary data collected from three Asian countries: India, Bangladesh and Nepal. A multivariate model is employed to analyze the data. Age, gender and education levels of a household head influence a household's choice of energy sources. Wealthy households are found to use clean energy sources such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity, whereas poorer households tend to use solid fuels such as fuelwood and dung cake. Sources of fuelwood collection are largely influenced by a family's labor supply, education, and household wealth status. Females and children are employed by households for fuelwood collection. Nepal and Bangladesh engage mostly female members for fuelwood collection.

We examine household access to water for domestic consumption and the water-treatment methods adopted in Bhutan, using data from the Bhutan Living Standard Survey (BLSS) 2012. The proportion of households having access to piped water in their home for domestic consumption has increased since 2003, while the use of wells and natural sources such as springs, lakes and rivers has declined over the years. The pattern of distribution of water sources and access to them across income groups shows that wealthier households in both rural and urban areas have access to safer water sources than their poorer counterparts. We find that education and household income are strong determinants of the choice of safe and secure access to water. Rural households tend to use more traditional water sources, such as springs, wells, rivers or ponds, compared to their urban counterparts.