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Author(s): Marcel Neeleman [sup.1] , J. Xavier Prochaska [sup.2] [sup.3] , Nissim Kanekar [sup.4] , Marc Rafelski [sup.5] [sup.6] Author Affiliations: (1) Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Heidelberg, Germany (2) Department of [...], Massive disk galaxies like the Milky Way are expected to form at late times in traditional models of galaxy formation.sup.1,2, but recent numerical simulations suggest that such galaxies could form as early as a billion years after the Big Bang through the accretion of cold material and mergers.sup.3,4. Observationally, it has been difficult to identify disk galaxies in emission at high redshift.sup.5,6 in order to discern between competing models of galaxy formation. Here we report imaging, with a resolution of about 1.3 kiloparsecs, of the 158-micrometre emission line from singly ionized carbon, the far-infrared dust continuum and the near-ultraviolet continuum emission from a galaxy at a redshift of 4.2603, identified by detecting its absorption of quasar light. These observations show that the emission arises from gas inside a cold, dusty, rotating disk with a rotational velocity of about 272 kilometres per second. The detection of emission from carbon monoxide in the galaxy yields a molecular mass that is consistent with the estimate from the ionized carbon emission of about 72 billion solar masses. The existence of such a massive, rotationally supported, cold disk galaxy when the Universe was only 1.5 billion years old favours formation through either cold-mode accretion or mergers, although its large rotational velocity and large content of cold gas remain challenging to reproduce with most numerical simulations.sup.7,8. A massive rotating disk galaxy was formed a mere 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang, a surprisingly short time after the origin of the Universe.

Gravity dominated Universe until it was 3.214 Gyr old and, after that, dark energy dominates leading to an eternal expansion, no matter if the Universe is closed, flat or open. That is the prediction of the expansion factor recently proposed by Silva [2]. It is also shown that there is an upper limit for the size of the Observable Universe relative radial comoving coordinate, beyond which nothing is observed by our fundamental observer, on Earth. Our Observable Universe may be only a tiny portion of a much bigger Universe most of it unobservable to us. This leads to the idea that an endless number of other fundamental observers may live on equal number of Observable Universes similar to ours. An unique Big Bang originated an unique Universe, only part of it observable to us., 1 Introduction Since 1929, with Hubble [1], we learned that our Observable Universe has been continuously expanding. Nearly all galaxies are moving away from us, the further they are, the [...]

We modify the propagator of the quantum fields for the quarks and gluons. With that we have finite results (without ultraviolet divergence) in the perturbation theory. Then we search for [a.sup.2][p.sup.2] → 0 and [a.sup.2][k.sup.2] → 0 with fixing the Lagrangian parameters [Z.sub.i], therefore we can ignore our modification. We find the situation [a.sup.2][p.sup.2] → 0 and [a.sup.2][k.sup.2] [right arrow] 0 associates with the free particles situation g → 0 (g is the coupling constant) and the situation a ≠ 0 associates with the perturbation breaking. We try to give the modification terms [a.sup.2][p.sup.2]/(1 + [a.sup.2][p.sup.2]) and [a.sup.2][k.sup.2]/(1 + [a.sup.2][k.sup.2]) physical aspects, for that we find the corresponding terms in the Lagrangian. To do that we find the role of those terms in the Feynman diagrams, in self energies, quarks gluons vertex, ... We see we can relate the propagator modification to fields dual behavior, pairing particle-antiparticle appears as scalar particles with mass 1/a. For the quarks we can interrupt these particles as pions with charges (-1,0, +1). If we used the propagator modification for deriving the quarks static potential U(r) of exchanged gluons and pions we find U(0) ~ 1/a if we compare this with the Coulomb potential we find the length a equivalent to the smallest distance between the interacting quarks. We use the static potential in quarks plasma study. We find the free and confinement quarks phases. We suggest a nuclear compression. We find there is a decrease in the global pressure due to the nuclear condensation. We use this decrease in the Friedman equations solutions, we find we can control the dark matter and dark energy, we can cancel them., 1 Quarks and gluons propagator modification To remove the ultraviolet (UV) divergences in the quarks and gluons perturbed interaction, we modify the propagator like: [Δ.sup.-ab.sub.μv] ([k.sup.2]) = [g.sub.μv] [δ.sup.ab]/[k.sup.2] - [...]

Assuming the big-bang is a periodic 4-dimensional event, we show that the main parameters of the ACDM model, namely matter, dark energy and total density, can be computed straightforwardly from Mach's principle and that the existence of dark matter is not necessary. As a result, we find that the cosmos expansion is the origin of mass and energy--but not the big-bang as a singular event., 1 Introduction The object of this note is to show that once assumed that the big bang is a periodic event, and using absorber theory, the dark matter field is [...]

Author(s): Alfred Tiley Author Affiliations: Galaxy disk observed to have formed shortly after the Big Bang Galaxies are immense, gravitationally bound systems composed of stars, dust, gas and invisible 'dark [...], A powerful radio telescope has peered back through time to observe a galaxy that contained a cold, rotating disk of gas not long after the Big Bang -- fuelling the debate about when and how disks first formed in galaxies. A cold rotating gas disk from 12.5 billion years ago.

Massive present-day early-type (elliptical and lenticular) galaxies probably gained the bulk of their stellar mass and heavy elements through intense, dust-enshrouded starbursts--that is, increased rates of star formation--in the most [...]

Arcing across the night sky is a pale band of light the Romans called the via lactea--the Milky Way. Astronomers have known since the 1920s that this band is an [...]

An alternative to the standard 'hot Big Bang' cosmology is presented. The quasi-steady-state cosmology model is based on an action principle by which the creation of matter and radiation is explained.

The cosmic microwave background (CMB), first observed in the early 1960s, has been discovered to be largely uniform in temperature and size. However, if uniformity was complete, none of the observable features of the universe, much less beings to observe such features, would have formed, so minute temperature variations must exist. Models for CMB can help advanced high-school and undergraduate students study cosmology.

Knowledge on cosmic microwave background did not only shed light on the evolution of the universe but also led to the development of high-energy cosmic rays. Scientists believe that the source of such tremendous energy can be traced outside the Galaxy.

The development of new and better tools for astronomical observations together with Einstein's discovery of the theory of General Relativity in the early part of this century sparked a revolution [...]

I BIG BANG COSMOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHIES OF BIG BANG COSMOLOGY Big bang cosmology is based on four sets of equations. The most fundamental are the field equations of the general [...]

Although full of talk about God, Stephen Hawking's recent best seller, A Brief History of Time, apparently has little use for the traditional notion of God as cosmic creator. More precisely, Hawking seems to reject the idea that we need appeal, any longer, to the notion of creatio originans (originating creation). The reason is that he has developed, over the last decade, a cosmological model that avoids any beginning to spacetime and the universe, and so eliminates the need for a cosmic beginner. I criticize Hawking's model in this essay, arguing that either it is not intended to be construed realistically or that, if it is, the model is highly implausible.

Author Affiliations: Observations by the Subaru telescope (silver and white) helped to pinpoint a primordial cluster of 12 galaxies. [see PDF for image] Credit: NAOJ Domes on the summit of [...], Telescopes detect a 'protocluster' that had already formed less than one billion years after the Big Bang. Telescopes detect a 'protocluster' that had already formed less than one billion years after the Big Bang.

Infrared astronomical satellite galaxy samples were subjected to a detailed analysis using four major statistics. The analysis failed to validate values predicted by the Hubble law, which is a hallmark of the big bang cosmology. In contrast, the analysis substatiated predictions made by the Lundmark law, which is indicative of chronometric cosmology theory. The results indicate that chronometric cosmology and the Lundmark law should form the basis of a working cosmological model.

SCIENCE IS a congeries of great quests, and cosmology is the grandest of the great quests. Taking as its province the universe as a whole, cosmology addresses the old, the [...]

The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) maps the full-sky at five different microwave frequencies. The measured 'acoustic' peak of the cosmic microwave background temperature-anisotropy power spectrum using WMAP method is precise. Data suggest that a slight falloff of power in the primordial fluctuation spectrum.

More than six months after the initial announcement that scientists had found evidence of gravitational waves - echoes of the Big Bang itself - the claim is hanging by a [...]

Author(s): Corinne Charbonnel (corresponding author) Do we live in an open Universe that will expand forever, or in a closed Universe whose expansion will eventually reverse? Part of the answer [...]